<p>The Consolidated Mine was a gold mine in Lumpkin County, Georgia, United States, just east of Dahlonega. Like most of the area around Dahlonega, the placer mining on the land on which the mine is located probably started during the Georgia Gold Rush. By 1880, the placer deposits were exhausted and the land was down to hard rock. Gold was soon discovered in a huge quartz vein system, and mined. "The richest acre" was mined deep into the ground, and the resulting shaft became known as the "Glory Hole.”</p><br>
<p>After an interruption of operations at the mine, a group of investors purchased about 7,000 acres (28 km²) of land around the discovery sight and formed the Dahlonega Consolidated Gold Mining Co. in 1895. After constructing the largest stamp mill east of the Mississippi River at the Consolidated Mine property, the Mining Co. folded in 1906. The mine&#39;s lower workings became flooded and lay dormant until seventy-five years later, when the site came under new ownership.</p><br>
<p>There is still gold to be mined here - but the cost of extracting the gold from the mine exceeds the value of the gold, at least for the time being. Today, a part of the upper level of the mine remains open for tourists, who can tour portions of the “Glory Hole” underground and pan for gold. Original cart rails, electrical lines and even an operational pneumatic drill recovered from the mine may be viewed. This mine and Crisson Mine are the two mines in the Dahlonega area that remain open for tourists. The Consolidated Mine remains the only mine in the area safe enough to take tourists into.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ilmen  is a historically important lake in the Novgorod Oblast of Russia, formerly a vital part of the Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The city of Novgorod lies six kilometers below the lake&#39;s outflow.</p><br>
<p>According to the Max Vasmer&#39;s Etymological Dictionary, the name of the lake originates from the Finnic "Ilmajärvi", which means "air lake". There are many lakes in Russia with their names being derivative from Lake Ilmen.</p><br>
<p>The average surface area is 982 km&sup2; (it may vary between 733 km&sup2; and 2,090 km&sup2; depending on water level). The lake is fed by 52 inflowing rivers, the four main ones being the Msta, the Pola, the Lovat, and the Shelon. It is drained through a single outlet, the Volkhov, into Lake Ladoga, and subsequently via the Neva into the Gulf of Finland. The source of the Volkhov is marked by the Peryn Chapel built in the 1220s.</p><br>
<p>The basin of Lake Ilmen contains vast areas in Novgorod, Pskov, and Tver Oblasts of Russia, as well as minor areas in the north of Vitebsk Region in Belarus.</p><br>
<p>The water level is regulated by the Volkhov hydroelectric plant situated downstream the Volkhov River. Water temperature in July is 19-20 °C. Bathing season is about 90 days.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ilmen is navigable. Shipping lines are Veliky Novgorod &ndash; Staraya Russa and Veliky Novgorod &ndash; Shimsk. There is a fishery in the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake area was the location of an important battle during World War II, the Demyansk Pocket.</p><br>
<p>The Georgia State Capitol is an architecturally and historically significant building in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It has been named a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is the primary office building of Georgias government housing the offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary of state on the second floor, and on the third floor, chambers in which the General Assembly which meets annually from January to April. The fourth floor houses visitors galleries overlooking the legislative chambers and a museum. A statue of Miss Freedom caps the dome.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The capitol site was occupied previously by the first Atlanta City Hall. To encourage the state government to relocate the capital city to rapidly growing and industrialized Atlanta from rural Milledgeville, the city donated the site. The first capitol in Louisville no longer stands, while in Augusta and Savannah the legislature met in makeshift facilities, perhaps causing (or caused by) the alternation of those two cities as capital. The legislature also met at other places, including Macon, especially during and just after the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Like many USA state capitols, the Georgia State Capitol is designed to resemble the Neoclassical architectural style of the United States Capitol, in Washington, D.C. Former Confederate general Philip Cook. was a member of the commission that oversaw planning and construction of the building. The commission engaged architects Willoughby J. Edbrooke and Franklin Pierce Burnham, of Chicago to design the building and Miles and Horne of Toledo, Ohio for construction. Work completed in March 1889. Sculptor George Crouch executed all the ornamental work on the building.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol faces west on Washington Street. The façade features a four-story portico, with stone pediment, supported by six Corinthian columns set on large stone piers. Georgias coat of arms, with two figures on each side, is carved on the pediment. The Capitols interior represents the 19th-century style of its time. It was among the earliest buildings to have elevators, centralized steam heat, and combination gas and electric lights. Classical pilasters and oak paneling are used throughout the building. The floors of the interior are marble from Pickens County, which still produces marble today.</p><br>
<p>The open central rotunda is flanked by two wings, each with a grand staircase and three-story atrium crowned by clerestory windows. The Capitol building has undergone frequent renovations to adapt to the growth and change of government. Originally constructed from terra cotta and covered with tin, in a 1958 renovation the present dome was gilded with native gold leaf from near Dahlonega in Lumpkin County, where the first American gold rush occurred during the 1830s. For this reason, legislative business is often referred to as what is happening "under the Gold Dome" by media across the state. The statue Miss Freedom has adorned the dome since the building&#39;s opening.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the House and Senate chambers were restored to their 1889 appearance with replicated decoration and color schemes. This included the demolition of damaged plaster, the reinstallation of flat plaster at the dome, columns, and walls, and a decorative painting in the House and Senate Chambers.</p><br>
<h2>Georgia Capitol Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum within the Capitol, in existence since 1889, houses extensive collections representing the natural and cultural history of Georgia. Native American artifacts, animals, rocks and minerals, and fossils illustrate the diversity of the collections. Removed during restoration or renovation, most of the collection remains in storage. The portraits of governors, statues of famous Georgians, and historic flags from many wars are displayed throughout the Capitol.</p><br>
<p>The Georgia Capitol Museum is a public education institution housed in the Capitol building under the administration of the University of Georgia Libraries. The museum seeks to preserve and interpret the history of the Georgia Capitol in Atlanta, the functions of the government, and the events that have occurred in the Capitol. To accomplish this, the museum collects, preserves, and interprets artifacts relating to the Capitol or associated with the events that have occurred there.</p><br>
<h2>Dimensions</h2><br>
<p>Greatest north–south: 347 feet, 9 inches (105.99 meters)</p><br>
<p>Greatest central depth: 272 feet, 4.5 inches (83.02 meters)</p><br>
<p>Second-Floor Rotunda to ceiling: 187 feet, 4 inches (57.10 meters)</p><br>
<p>Dome diameter: 75 feet (22.86 meters)</p><br>
<h2>Georgia's old capitol museum</h2><br>
<p>Georgia&#39;s second capitol building is at 201 East Greene Street, Milledgeville, Georgia, and served as state capitol until 1867. The building was severely damaged by a fire March 24, 1941 and was rebuilt in its former design to serve as a part of Georgia Military College.Edwin L. Jackson.</p><br>
<p>Carl Vinson Institute of Government. The University of Georgia.. The first floor of the old capitol is open as a museum.</p><br>
<p>Soap Lake is a meromictic soda lake in the town of Soap Lake, Washington formed by the Missoula Floods at the foot of the Grand Coulee. The lake gets its name from the naturally occurring foam that gives its water a soapy appearance, and because the lake&#39;s mineral-rich waters have a slick, soapy feel. The lake is approximately 2 square miles in area and 70 ft deep.</p><br>
<h2>Qualities</h2><br>
<p>Soap Lakes mineral-rich waters have long been thought to have medicinal value. In fact, it is said that rival Indian tribes would call a truce when they came to Soap Lake to relax and heal themselves and their animals. This is verified by recorded history and the number of Indian artifacts found in the area over the years. Washington State tourist guides in the 1920s referred to Soap Lake as the "worlds greatest mineral sea" and people afflicted with Buergers disease found that bathing in the lake would cure their illnesses. The city of Soap Lake bills itself as "Washingtons Health Resort".</p><br>
<p>There are 23 different minerals in Soap Lake water. Water quality assays conducted since 1910 to test the mineral content of Soap Lake water have shown that the mineral content of the lake has declined. Although it is not known what causes the foam, its quantity has declined since the construction of canals linking Soap Lake to upstream lakes and the Grand Coulee Dam. It is now rare to see any foam except on windy days.</p><br>
<p>However, compared to the ocean and other known naturally occurring mineral resources in the world, Soap Lake still has the highest diverse mineral content of any body of water on the planet. Soap Lake water also contains ichthyols, an oil-like substance sold over the counter in Europe to treat infections and abrasions. The icthyol in Soap Lake water most likely come from decomposition of tiny brine-like red shrimp that flourish in the water from late spring to mid-summer. Like the Dead Sea, the high mineral content of the lake makes the water very buoyant.</p><br>
<p>The alkalinity of the lake is similar to that found on the moons of Jupiter. Because of this, in 2002 the National Science Foundation awarded a grant to researchers from Central Washington University to study the lake to learn about the possibility of life on Mars.</p><br>
<h2>Mineral content</h2><br>
<p>Less than 0.01 mg/l of aluminum, iron, copper, rubidium, lithium, strontium, barium, chromium, lead, manganese, titanium, vanadium, and boron.</p><br>
<p>The Taedong River  is a large river in North Korea. It rises in the Rangrim Mountains of the countrys north. It then flows southwest into Korea Bay at Nampo. In between, it runs through the countrys capital, Pyongyang. Along the river are landmarks such as the Juche Tower and Kim Il-sung Square.</p><br>
<p>The river is 439 km in length, and generally is deep. It is the fifth longest river on the Korean peninsula and the second longest in North Korea. Pyongyang is approximately 110 km upstream from the mouth, Sunchon 192 km upstream, and Taehŭng 414 km upstream. Because of its depth, it is widely used for river transport; it is navigable by large ships up to 65 km inland, although most commercial traffic stops at Songrim.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The kingdom of Koguryo was founded on its shores. Many archeological sites dating to the neolithic and Bronze ages have been found along the river, as well as relics and ruins from Koguryo. It was also once known as the Pae River.</p><br>
<h2>Dams and bridges</h2><br>
<p>In 1986, the government completed the 8 km long West Sea Barrage, with three locks and 36 sluices, at the mouth of the Taedong River near Nampo. The dam acts to control floodwater and to irrigate lands newly reclaimed from the Korea Gulf. The dam has reduced the rivers natural ability to purify itself and tends to concentrate contaminants. Other dams, such as the Nyongwon Power Station, have been built to provide energy to the country.</p><br>
<p>In Pyongyang, there are six bridges on the Taedong, including the Okryu Bridge, Rungra Bridge, and Taedong Bridge.</p><br>
<p>Mount Owen is in the Tasman district of the South Island of New Zealand. It stands at 1875 metres  above sea level and is part of the Marino Mountains.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of caves in the marble karst areas on the flanks of the mountain, including New Zealand&#39;s longest cave system, Bulmer Cavern, which run for 64 kilometres. Mount Owen lies within Kahurangi National Park. The Hope Saddle crosses its eastern flank.</p><br>
<p>Mount Owen featured briefly in the first of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, The Fellowship of the Ring. When the characters led by Aragorn leave Moria they emerge onto a rocky plateau. This was filmed on the slopes of Mount Owen.</p><br>
<p>Mount Owen is best accessed via Granity Pass. This generally involves a two-day tramp staying overnight at Granity Pass Hut. It is possible to climb it in winter but care is needed over the karst area due to snow hiding sink holes.</p><br>
<p>Acklins is an island and district of the Bahamas.</p><br>
<p>It is one of a group of islands arranged along a large, shallow lagoon called the Bight of Acklins, of which the largest are Crooked Island (76 square miles) in the north and Acklins (120 square miles) in the southeast, and the smaller are Long Cay (once known as Fortune Island, (8 square miles)) in the northwest, and Castle Island in the south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were settled by American Loyalists in the late 1780s who set up cotton plantations employing over 1,000 slaves. After the abolition of slavery in the British Empire the plantaions became uneconomical, and the replacement income from sponge diving has now dwindled as well with the rest of the natural sponge industry after the advent of synthetics. The inhabitants now live by fishing and small-scale farming.</p><br>
<p>Although Acklins Island has relatively few historical landmarks, there are some noteworthy places. Acklins is home to numerous Lucayan people sites. An ancient site, thought to be one of the largest Lucayan settlements in The Bahamas, sits along Pompey Bay Beach, just south of Spring Point. Ten ancient Lucayan sites have been unearthed by National Geographic Society archeologists on Samana Cay alone, which is northeast of Spring Point in Acklins.</p><br>
<p>Plana Cays, also northeast of Spring Point, is a protected reserve for endangered great iguanas and the very rare Bahamian hutia (a guinea pig-like rodent), the only native mammal of The Bahamas.</p><br>
<p>The population of Acklins was 565 at the 2010 census, with the largest populations at Lovely Bay in the northwestern tip of the island and in Salina Point in the southernmost area of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The island is served by Spring Point Airport.</p><br>
<p>East Freetown is one of two villages in the town of Freetown, Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. Added to the town in 1747, East Freetown was originally an outpost settlement of Tiverton, Rhode Island, then a part of Massachusetts. It rests on the shore of Long Pond.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>East Freetown was made a part of Freetown as a result of the Pocasset Purchase of 1747. It remained less economically developed and industrialized than its sister village, Assonet well into the 20th century. The village was the birthplace of Massachusetts Governor Marcus Morton.</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>The East Freetown Historic District has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1999. It contains many buildings, sites, and features of local historical significance. The district is located roughly along Howland, Gurney, Washburn County Roads.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>East Freetown is located in Southeastern Massachusetts. It is bounded by Dartmouth, Fall River, New Bedford, Lakeville, Assonet, Rochester, Acushnet, and Long Pond. It has a hilly terrain, with many outcroppings of bedrock. Maple, elm, oak, pine, and birch trees are common throughout. Numerous streams and brooks flow through the village, including Fall Brook.</p><br>
<p>Many peninsulas exist around Long Pond, laying site for summer resorts such as Heaven&#39;s Heights and Hemlock Point. A small portion of the village comprises a part of the Freetown-Fall River State Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Churches</h2><br>
<p>Several churches have been built in East Freetown.</p><br>
<h3>St. John Neumann Church</h3><br>
<p>St. John Neumann Church is a Roman Catholic parish covering the village of East Freetown. On the grounds of the church are Cathedral Camp and Our Lady of the Lake camp, both of which combined to form the co-ed Cathedral Camp. The camp has an extensive outdoor program, including swimming and boating on Long Pond.</p><br>
<h3>East Freetown Congregational-Christian Church</h3><br>
<p>The East Freetown Congregational-Christian Church is a gathering of people who emphasize music, prayer, and Bible-based preaching as part of their worship life together. The congregation is bound by a covenant and is considered "non-credal". That means there is no declared statement which is used as a filter of membership. The congregation has not been part of any other denomination or structure since its gathering in 1831. From its inception in the New England Christian Connexion movement of the 18th-19th century, the congregation has maintained five tenets of that movement: 1. the Lordship of Jesus Christ as the sole head of the church; 2. the use of no other name than "Christian&quot 3. the canonical Scriptures as the only rule of faith and practice; 4. individual duty of the interpretation of the Scriptures; 5. Christian character as a test of fellowship. The church took on the additional title "Congregational" in 1931 as a recognition of the historical roots of its polity, and as part of an emerging spirit of communion among Reformed tradition American churches.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>From the early 19th century until 1950, Freetown was serviced by several neighborhood grammar schools, several of which existed in East Freetown.</p><br>
<p>Furnace School</p><br>
<p>Mason&#39;s Corner School</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>From 1950 forward, students have attended the, first for grades 1-8, later K-6, and currently PreK-3. Students also attend (4-5), and Freetown-Lakeville Middle School (6-8).</p><br>
<p>For secondary education, students have three options: Apponequet Regional High School serves students with an academic focus for grades 9-12. Old Colony Regional Vocational Technical High School in Rochester accepts students from Assonet when there are openings, and provides a voc-tech atmosphere. Bristol County Agricultural High School serves students wanting to focus primarily in agricultural and animal studies.</p><br>
<p>Minneapolis City Hall and Hennepin County Courthouse , designed by Long and Kees in 1888, is the main building used by the city government of Minneapolis, Minnesota as well as by Hennepin County, Minnesota. The structure has served as mainly local government offices since it was built, and today the building is 60 percent occupied by the city and 40 percent occupied by the County. The building is jointly owned by the city and county and managed by the Municipal Building Commission. The Commission consists of the chair of the County Board, the mayor of the City of Minneapolis, a member of the County Board and a member of the Minneapolis City Council. The County Board chair serves as the president of the Commission and the mayor serves as the vice president. The building bears a striking resemblance to the city hall buildings in Cincinnati and Toronto. The City Hall and Courthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building replaced an earlier City Hall that existed from 1873 until 1912 near the old intersection between Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue. That structure eventually was razed to make way for Gateway Park, which continues to occupy part of the old City Hall site. The building also replaced an earlier courthouse and also the earlier Hennepin County Jail, which was located where USA Bank Stadium currently stands.</p><br>
<p>The building, located at 350 South Fifth Street, is an example of Richardsonian Romanesque architecture. The design is based upon Henry Hobson Richardsons Allegheny County Courthouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Washington School, the first schoolhouse in Minneapolis west of the Mississippi River, was demolished to make way for the new building. Groundbreaking took place in 1889, and the cornerstone was laid (a story off the ground) in 1891. Construction did not officially end until 1906, although the structural exterior was essentially complete by the end of 1895. The county began moving in to its side (4th Ave.) in November 1895, while the city (3rd Ave.) side was not occupied until December 1902. Cost was about $3,554,000, which works out to 28¢ per cubic foot ($10/m³).When constructed, the building claimed to have the worlds largest four-faced chiming clock. At 24 feet, 6 inches (just under 7 1/2 meters), the faces are 18 inches (45.7 cm) wider than those of the Great Clock in London (which houses the famous hour bell Big Ben). The tower housing the clock reaches 345 feet (105 m) in height, and was the tallest structure in the city until the 1920s when the Foshay Tower was built. A 15-bell chime in the tower is played regularly, with noontime concerts provided to the public on holidays and on Fridays and certain Sundays during the warm months. The chime was originally 10 bells, and it was first played on March 10, 1896.</p><br>
<p>The building is built of rose granite quarried in Ortonville, with many stones greater than 20 tonnes in weight. The granite was originally only going to be used for the foundation of the building, with brick used for the upper portion. However, the public appreciated the appearance of the foundation so much that they lobbied for the entire building to be made of granite. This may be a reason for the significant cost overruns — it was originally expected to cost only $1.15 million.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most buildings in downtown Minneapolis, there aren&#39;t any "skyways" connecting the city hall to the rest of the city. Since exterior alterations are not allowed for buildings on the National Register of Historic Places, tunnels were constructed instead. Public pedestrian tunnels connect the building to the Hennepin County Government Center under 5th Street, and to the USA Courthouse under 4th Street. There are also restricted tunnels for use by the sheriff connecting under 4th Avenue to the Hennepin County Jail and to the Government Center. The METRO Blue and Green light rail lines have a stop on the south side of the building: the Government Plaza station.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>Originally, the building had a red terracotta roof, but it began leaking so a copper roof was installed. At 180,000 pounds (81.6 t), it was said to be the largest in the country. The copper has since acquired its characteristic green patina.Over the years, some of the larger spaces in the building were subdivided to make more office space. In the 1940s and 1950s, the city built a mezzanine floor over its side of the 3rd floor, and the county built an annex building on its side of the courtyard. In 1981, a committee plan recommended converting some of the spaces back to their original design and that other spaces be converted to a more open design with offices fronting onto the courtyard instead of the current corridors. The plan also called for the annex building in the courtyard to be demolished, the courtyard domed, and the Father of Waters sculpture moved in there. Many of these aspects of the plan were rejected, although restoration of certain historic spaces has been completed.</p><br>
<p>Lewis Pass  is a mountain pass in the South Island of New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost of the three main passes across the Southern Alps, it is higher than the Haast Pass, and slightly lower than Arthur&#39;s Pass. State Highway 7 traverses the pass on its route between north Canterbury and the West Coast; it passes through extensive unmodified beech forest.</p><br>
<p>The pass is the saddle between the valleys of the Maruia River to the northwest and the Lewis River to the southeast. The saddle is located close to the small spa of Maruia Springs.</p><br>
<p>The Lewis Pass is named after Henry Lewis who, together with Christopher Maling, was the first European to discover the pass, in April 1860 while working as a surveyor of the Nelson Provincial Survey Department. Before this time the pass was used by the Ngāi Tahu Māori of Canterbury to transport Pounamu (greenstone) from the west coast.</p><br>
<p>The area around Lewis Pass is protected as a national reserve. There are a number of tramping routes in the Lewis Pass area, including the St James Walkway. The short Alpine Nature Walk loop walk around an alpine wetland and tarn can be accessed from a carpark near the saddle.</p><br>
<p>Lake Doré is a freshwater lake in the township of North Algona-Wilberforce, Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada, about 6 km north of the community of Eganville in the neighbouring township of Bonnechere Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake is about 8 km long and 5 km wide, and is only about 18 m at its deepest. The primary inflows are Black Creek and Spring Creek at the west, and Biedermans Creek at the north. The primary outflow is the Snake River at the northeast, which flows via the Muskrat River into the Ottawa River. There are three named bays, Millers Bay at the south, Smiths Bay at the southwest, and Warrens Bay at the southeast. There are also two named points: Church Point at the southwest and MacDonalds Point at the northwest.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>The community of Lake Dore is at the northeast tip of the lake at the Snake River outflow. The community of Letts Corners is just to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Ontario Highway 41 travels along the south shore of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Lake Dore Provides cottagers with ample opportunities for recreational boating and fishing. The lake has a population of Large Mouth Bass and Small Mouth Bass. Northern Pike are also caught by anglers on this lake. There are three boat ramps on the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Mac Beattie, the first inductee to the Ottawa Valley Country Music Hall of Fame, composed the song "Lake Doré Waltz" in the years after WWII. The song was performed with his band, "Mac Beattie And The Ottawa Valley Melodiers".</p><br>
<p>Amboy Crater is an extinct North American cinder cone type of volcano that rises above a 70 km&sup2; lava field in southern California. It is a National Natural Landmark located in the Eastern Mojave Desert and within Mojave Trails National Monument, in San Bernardino County, California.</p><br>
<p>It is equidistant and about 75 mi between Barstow to the west and Needles to the east, and 1.5 mi south of historic USA Route 66, near the town of Amboy, California in San Bernardino County, California. Amboy Crater was designated the Amboy Crater National Natural Landmark in May, 1973.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Amboy Crater&#39;s location is 2.5 mi southwest of the town of Amboy and the Route 66-National Trails Highway. The Bullion Mountains are to the west, and Bristol Mountains to the northeast.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>This cinder cone is estimated to be 79,000 years old (+/- 5,000 years) and was formed in layers of mostly vesicular pahoehoe – during the Pleistocene geological period. The interior has a lava lake. Lava flows as old as Amboy Crater itself blanket the surrounding area. The most recent eruption was approximately 10,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The crater is 944 ft above sea level, about 250 ft above the surrounding basalt lava plains. The scenic and solitary Amboy Crater was a popular sight and stop for travelers on USA Route 66 in California before the opening of Interstate 40 in 1973. Other than a stretch of USA Route 66 in New Mexico, Amboy Crater was one of few extinct volcanoes along the entire route, so generations of USA Route 66 travelers from the 1920s through the 1960s could boast that they had climbed a real volcano. Visits decreased after Interstate 40 opened, but have increased in recent years with the nearby Mitchell Caverns, Mojave National Preserve, and renewed historical tourism interest in "old Route 66."</p><br>
<h2>Visiting</h2><br>
<p>The Federal Bureau of Land Management (BLM) recommends using the Western Cone Trail to reach the volcano peak&#39;s rim, a steep and rocky hiking trail. The trailhead is at the Amboy Crater day use parking area, which provides shaded and open picnic tables and public restrooms. Regular desert precautions apply here: being alert for rattlesnakes and old military explosives, and having a hat, sunscreen, sturdy shoes, and abundant drinking water. Educational and organized groups are advised to contact the BLM before heading out to Amboy Crater.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>Amboy Crater was used as a location in the 1959 movie Journey to the Center of the Earth. Fires were set inside the crater to simulate a volcanic eruption.</p><br>
<p>The desert around Amboy Crater was featured on the cover art of the 2008 Rush album Snakes & Arrows Live.</p><br>
<p>Amboy Crater was featured in the Viceland network show Abandoned, Season 1, episode 6: "Route 66".</p><br>
<p>Sirkap  is the name of an archaeological site on the bank opposite to the city of Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan.</p><br>
<p>The city of Sirkap was built by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius after he invaded ancient India around 180 BC. Demetrius founded in the northern and northwestern modern Pakistan an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last until around 10 BC. Sirkap is also said to have been rebuilt by king Menander I.</p><br>
<p>The excavation of the old city was carried out under the supervision of Sir John Marshall by Hergrew from 1912-1930. In 1944 and 1945 further parts were excavated by Mortimer Wheeler and his colleagues.</p><br>
<h2>Greek city</h2><br>
<p>- Fluted vase with bead and reel design (Bhir Mound, stratum 1)</p><br>
<p>- Cup with rosace and decoratice scroll (Bhir Mound, stratum 1)</p><br>
<p>- Stone palette with individual on a couch being crowned by standing woman, and served (Sirkap, stratum 5)</p><br>
<p>- Handle with double depiction of a philosopher (Sirkap, stratum 5/4)</p><br>
<p>- Woman with smile (Sirkap, stratum 5)</p><br>
<p>- Man with moustache (Sirkap, stratum 5)</p><br>
<p>(Source: John Marshall "Taxila, Archaeological excavations").</p><br>
<p>The site of Sirkap was built according to the "Hippodamian" grid-plan characteristic of Greek cities. It is organized around one main avenue and fifteen perpendicular streets, covering a surface of around 1200x400 meters, with a surrounding wall 5–7 meters wide and 4.8 kilometers long. The ruins are Greek in character, similar to those of Olynthus in Macedonia.</p><br>
<p>Numerous Hellenistic artifacts have been found, in particular coins of Greco-Bactrian kings and stone palettes representing Greek mythological scenes. Some of them are purely Hellenistic, others indicate an evolution of the Greco-Bactrian styles found at Ai-Khanoum towards more indianized styles. For example, accessories such as Indian ankle bracelets can be found on some representations of Greek mythological figures such as Artemis.</p><br>
<p>Following its construction by the Greeks, the city was further rebuilt during the incursions of the Indo-Scythians, and later by the Indo-Parthians after an earthquake in 30 AD. Gondophares, the first king of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, built parts of the city including the double headed eagle stupa and the temple of the sun god. The city was overtaken by the Kushan kings who abandoned it and built a new city at Sirsukh, about 1.5 km to the north-east.</p><br>
<h2>Religious buildings</h2><br>
<p>Buddhist stupas with strong Hellenistic decorative elements can be found throughout the Sirkap site (Stupa of the two eagles ), a Jain temple, as well as a Hindu temple, indicating a close interaction of religious cultures. A Greek religious temple of the Ionic order is also visible at the nearby site of Jandial (650 meters from Sirkap), but there is a possibility that it may have been dedicated to a Zoroastrian cult.</p><br>
<p>The site of Sirkap bears witness to the city-building activity of the Indo-Greeks during their occupation of the Indian territory for close to two centuries, as well as their integration of other faiths, especially Buddhism.</p><br>
<h3>Round stupa</h3><br>
<p>One round Stupa is present at Sirkap. It is one of the oldest Stupas in the Indian-Subcontinent. It is assumed that this Stupa was uprooted and thrown to its present location by a strong earthquake in the 1st century AD. When the new city was built later, the Stupa was kept by building a protecting wall around it.</p><br>
<h3>Apsidal Temple</h3><br>
<p>The building that is known as the Apsidal Temple is the largest sanctuary of Sirkap, measuring about 70 by 40 meters (by contrast: the Parthenon in Athens is 70 by 31 meters). The Apsidal Temple consists of a square nave with several rooms, used by the Buddhist monks, and a circular room, which gives the building its apsidal shape. After the earthquake that destroyed the city in c. 30 AD, the Buddhist shrine was built in a spacious courtyard. The round part was probably in use for a small stupa, but no traces of it remain. Some carvings were probably done by an artist from Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Double-Headed Eagle Stupa</h3><br>
<p>A special Stupa at Sirkap is the so-called Double-Headed Eagle Stupa. The pilasters here are of a Greek design, "Corinthian columns". In the middle arch, a Greek temple is shown; in the outer, a shrine of a Hindu design can be seen. On top of these sanctuaries, a Double-headed eagle is seated from which the name of the Stupa has been derived. This motive is rather odd, to say the least, as it is originally Babylonian. It seems to have spread to Scythia, and introduced in the Punjab by the Saka rulers.</p><br>
<h3>Dharmarajika Stupa</h3><br>
<p>The nearby Dharmarajika Stupa, is a large stupa that dates from the 2nd century CE. The stupa was built built to house relics of the Buddha, while several monastic buildings were built around the stupa.</p><br>
<h2>Visit by Apollonius of Tyana</h2><br>
<p>The Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana is related to have visited ancient India, and specifically the city of Taxila in the 1st century AD. He describes constructions of the Greek type, probably referring to Sirkap:</p><br>
<p>Styra  is a village and a former municipality on the island Euboea, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Karystos, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 188.583 km. It is located in the southern part of Euboea, facing the eastern shore of Attica across the South Euboean Gulf. Nowadays it can be reached by ferryboat from the tiny harbor of Agia Marina, as well as by bridge from Chalcis.</p><br>
<p>Above the port there is a hill where the church of Saints Kostantine and Helen is situated with a panoramic view of the coast and Stouronisi (Styra Island).</p><br>
<p>Styra is a very popular destination for Athenians during the summer period.</p><br>
<p>After the collapse of the Iron Curtain, Albanians migrated into the area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Actually there are two cities, Nea Styra (New) and Palaia Styra (Old). The Nea Styra is a more modern tourist area with beautiful views, beaches, hotels, cafes, bookstores, nightclubs, shops, and bars There are two doctors in Styra that share time between Nea Styra and Palaia Styra. In between Nea Styra and Palaia Styra is the ancient city of Styra, a city mentioned by Homer&#39;s Iliad (Rhapsody B). Additionally near Styra there are ancient structures standing which are 4,500 years old and are constructed using Megalithic Architecture. They are called Drakospita (i.e. dragon houses) and have been built using huge one piece stones (monoliths). The size of each of these stones is 4.0m length x 2.5m width x 1.5m height, similar to those found in the Philippines and at Stonehenge.</p><br>
<p>Ships left from the ancient city state of Styra to aid in the rescue of Helen of Troy.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is located in the Canterbury region of the South Island of New Zealand. It is actually a broad, shallow lagoon located directly to the west of Banks Peninsula, separated from the Pacific Ocean by a long narrow sandy spit called Kaitorete Spit, or more correctly Kaitorete Barrier. It lies partially in extreme southeastern Selwyn District and partially in the southwestern extension of the former Banks Peninsula District, which now  is a ward in the city of Christchurch. The lake holds high historical and cultural significance to the indigenous Māori population and the traditional Māori name Te Waihora, means spreading waters. It has officially had a dual English/Māori name since at least 1938.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Currently Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is a brackish bar-type lagoon. The lake covers an area of 198 km&sup2, and is New Zealand&#39;s 5th largest lake (by area).</p><br>
<p>Lagoons of this type form an interlinked chain of habitats or corridor, which run the length of the east coast of the South Island, from Wairau Lagoon and Lake Grassmere in Marlborough, through Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora and Coopers Lagoon in Central Canterbury, Washdyke and Wainono Lagoons in South Canterbury, to Waituna Lagoon in Southland.</p><br>
<h3>Catchment</h3><br>
<p>Nearly all of the water entering Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is derived from the groundwater system that underlies the gravel-dominated strata of the Central Canterbury Plains. The groundwater system is fed from two sources of recharge: rainfall incident on the plains and subterranean seepage from the Rakaia and Waimakariri Rivers. The exception to this is periods of persistent rainfall, usually during winter when discharge into Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is supplemented by surface flow derived from the foothills from the Rakaia Gorge to Darfield. This illustrates why Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora has undergone significant ecological transformation in recent years as land use practices in the catchment area have changed. Little detail is known about water level regimes, internal circulation or sedimentation regimes of such lagoons, however it is known that they are significantly vulnerable to human use of the surrounding land and contributing catchments through changes to their hydrological regimes, as well as their sediment and chemical input loads.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<h3>Wildlife</h3><br>
<p>Rare Jessies sometimes appear vicinity to the lake. Whales are rarer due to their small populations, however, coast-loving species such as southern right and humpback can sometimes be observed cavorting and resting along the shores near the lake, such as at Birdlings Flat. Endangered, endemic Hectors dolphins are found here in good numbers.http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/CSL3072.PDF.</p><br>
<p>Southern elephant seals have been strayed here, but they will stay for short but certain periods once they entered the lake. New Zealand fur seals sometimes appear here as well.</p><br>
<p>Basking sharks are known to enter the lake seldom.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is less than 5000 years old it has undergone many dramatic changes over that short period of time. The lake is a dynamic feature, it has been up to twice its present depth and area in the past, and it has progressed through various stages as it has developed into the brackish bar-type lagoon that we see today. In Chronological order these stages began with the lake as part of Canterbury plains, which were then flooded, forming a bay, then an estuary and finally a lake/ lagoon (Waituna type lagoon).</p><br>
<p>The original formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora was primarily a function of formation of Kaitorete Barrier. Kaitorete Barrier is often incorrectly referred to as a spit. However, by definition this is incorrect as a spit is widest at the updrift end and tapers to a narrow tip at the downdrift end, but the Kaitorete Barrier is narrower at the southern (updrift) end and widest at the northern (downdrift) end. Kaitorete is also attached to the land at both ends (although somewhat tenuously in south) and therefore technically classed as a Barrier beach.</p><br>
<p>The formation of Kaitorete Barrier began at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum 20,000 years ago valley glaciers advanced in Canterbury and subsequent glacial outwash rivers delivered vast quantities of sand, gravel and silt to the coast. Sea level in Canterbury was 130 meters lower than the present day due to glaciation and the coast was as far as 50 km east of its present-day position, meaning the Canterbury plains were double their present width. Subsequent rapid sea-level rise then drowned what is now the continental shelf, causing rapid westward migration of the coast. 10,000 years ago the Canterbury coast was approaching the area presently occupied by Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora. The coast consisted then, as it does now of the unconsolidated sands and gravels of the fans of major rivers in the area such as the Rakaia and Waimakariri. The Canterbury Bight was exposed to powerful southerly waves. The combination of weakly resistant unconsolidated sands and gravels and high energy wave action caused rapid coastal erosion and strong net northward transport of the resulting load of sands and gravels fed to the shore.</p><br>
<p>This completes the sequence of events leading up to the formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora; with rapid sea-level rise drowning the seaward edge of plains, rapid erosion of coast to south changing its position and providing, in addition to direct river-borne sediments, a massive supply of sea borne sediments and strong net northwards longshore drift by waves, moving the sediments towards Banks Peninsula and providing the materials to construct Kaitorete Barrier, that now encloses the lake.</p><br>
<p>If left to develop naturally Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora will once again become a saltwater estuary over the next few centuries.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural significance</h2><br>
<p>Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora has been a revered mahinga kai (site of traditional significance for food and other natural resources) for Māori since ancient times and remains central to the lives of many Māori who now live in the area. Under the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement 1998, ownership of the lake bed of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora was returned to Te Rūnanga O Ngāi Tahu, who are now able to reassert their rangatiratanga (ownership) over this significant site through direct control of its management.</p><br>
<p>The traditional name for the lake was Te Kete Ika o Rākaihautū meaning "the food basket of Rākaihautū". The food sources of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora were once abundant and included tuna (eels), pātiki (flounder) and aua (mullet). Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora was a famed mahinga manu wai māori (place for taking waterfowl). However, today the richness of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora as a mahinga kai has been largely lost to farmland. While it remains a mahinga kai, its yields have been significantly reduced due to the periodic drainage of the lake in order to maintain reclaimed land and pasture. In the pre-Pākehā past however, the control of the lake’s level was retained at an optimum water level for the birdlife that lived there and provided kai (food) for many people. The lake was only drained when its level exceeded the normal maximum. Kōrari (flax stalks) were dragged across the sand to make the initial opening of the water to the sea. Such carefully monitored drainage of the lake took place for several hundred years, consistently maintaining Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora&#39;s abundant supply of kai.</p><br>
<p>In 2007 an assessment of the cultural health of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora was undertaken as a combined effort by Ngai Tahu and the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA). Preliminary findings showed that the lake, and in particular the lake edge still holds significant mahinga kai values, despite obvious water quality, modification, pressure and native vegetation issues.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the study, and in particular the interviews with Tāngata whenua, a number of unique themes and health indicators for Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora were identified. Drivers of change were identified as: catchment land use modification and intensification; drainage, management and reclamation of wetlands; decline in quality; and access to mahinga kai and a decline in inflow and lake water quality and quantity. Major changes over time were identified as: the loss of mahinga kai habitat; loss of matauranga Ngai Tahu (the knowledge of the local iwi); domination of the fishery by commercial operators; declining access and use of the lake and mahinga kai; and degradation of mauri (life force) of the lake and mana. For the indigenous population desirable outcomes for the future include regeneration and restoration of native habitat; higher and fluctuating lake levels; an increase in the native bird population; reduced sedimentation and erosion; integrated management action; more Ngai Tahu and community use; mahinga kai activity rejuvenated; and Te Kete Ika o Rakaihautu/The Fish Basket of Rakaihautu restored.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>As well as holding high cultural significance to the indigenous population Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is also rated as a nationally significant site for recreation. The lake is currently used for a wide range of water and land based activities. It has been identified as nationally significant for waterfowl hunting, and regionally significant for fishing and cycling on the rail trail.</p><br>
<p>A wide range of both water and land based activities are currently undertaken in the area including fishing, waterfowl hunting, bird-watching, picnicking, camping, cycling, trail biking, scenic driving and water sports such as kayaking and water-skiing. Many of these activities are reliant on a healthy natural ecosystem, especially fish and wildlife habitat, and a decrease in the number of people participating in trout fishing and other activities has been recorded since 1996.</p><br>
<h2>State of the lake and future management</h2><br>
<p>In a 2010 report on lake water quality Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora was deemed the second most polluted lake in New Zealand in terms of nutrient content and algal growth. Algal blooms are a regular summer occurrence and toxic algae bloomed in the lake in 2009. Furthermore, most tributaries to the lake exceed the contact recreation guidelines for faecal coliforms and levels of faecal coliforms in Boggy Creek and Doyleston Drain frequently exceed the stock-drinking water guideline value.</p><br>
<p>Results for E. coli levels are also poor with 42% of sites associated with the lake failing national recreational guide standards for water quality. No sites achieved the shellfish/food gathering standard or were fit for drinking. However, there is some debate over the definition of the trophic status of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora. Although the lake has high nutrient and phytoplankton values that place it in the category of hypertrophic (extremely enriched) the lake does not exhibit many of the characteristics of such a classification. For example, it does not regularly undergo severe oxygen depletion, nor does it produce unsightly toxic algal blooms or fish kills, unlike other lakes in the area with the same trophic status. Furthermore, it supports abundant fish and bird communities.</p><br>
<p>Recently it has been recognised that the combination of abstraction and climate was causing adverse effects on groundwater levels that in turn adversely affected the spring fed stream discharge into Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora. The dependency of lake on the ground water system in its catchment cannot be reduced, but it is to be hoped that by managing groundwater abstractions during times when the inputs to the aquifer system are low the output system to the lake will be maintained at a level that ensures the protection of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora. Being a low land lake Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora not only receives inputs within the immediate vicinity of the lake but also from the wider catchment across the plains to the foothills. The quality of lake tributaries reflects the intensive land use surrounding them, with elevated nutrients and bacteria found in many sites. This has implications for the scale of management issues. The dependency of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora on groundwater sourced input has resulted in local authority Environment Canterbury implementing a restorative programme for lowland streams. Riparian protection around the lake margin and tributaries will greatly help reduce some contaminant inputs such as sediment and phosphorus, but catchment wide nutrient and water allocation management will be needed to reduce nitrates and improve freshwater inflows to the lake.</p><br>
<p>Eboracum  was a fort and city in the Roman province of Britannia. In its prime it was the largest town in northern Britain and a provincial capital. The site remained occupied after the decline of the Roman Empire and ultimately evolved into the present-day city York, occupying the same site in North Yorkshire, England.</p><br>
<p>Two Roman emperors died in Eboracum: Septimius Severus in 211 AD, and Constantius Chlorus in 306 AD.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name is dated and is an address containing the genitive form of the settlement&#39;s name, Eburaci, on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumberland. During the Roman period, the name was written both Eboracum and Eburacum (in nominative form).</p><br>
<p>The name Eboracum comes from the Common Brittonic Eburākon, which means "yew tree place". The word for "yew" was *ebura in Proto-Celtic (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", iúr (older iobhar), iubhar, efwr "alder buckthorn", evor "alder buckthorn"), combined with the proprietive suffix *-āko(n) "having" (cf. Welsh -og, Gaelic -ach) meaning "yew tree place" (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrach/iubhrach in Irish Gaelic and eabhrach/iobhrach in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages). The name was then Latinized by replacing the Celtic neuter nominative ending -on by its Latin equivalent -um,a common use noted also in Gaul and Lusitania. Various place names, such as Évry, Ivry, Ivrey, Ivory and Ivrac in France would all come from *eburacon / *eburiacon; for example: Ivry-la-Bataille (Eure, Ebriaco in 1023–1033), Ivry-le-Temple (Evriacum in 1199) Évry (Essonne, Everiaco in 1158), etc.</p><br>
<h2>Origins</h2><br>
<p>The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area known as the Brigantes by the Romans became a Roman client state. When their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber. Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. In the same year Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain.</p><br>
<p>A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result, permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river.</p><br>
<h2>Military</h2><br>
<p>from 313 to 324 AD from Musei Capitolini, Rome</p><br>
<p>From its foundation the Roman fort of Eboracum was aligned on a north-east/south-east bearing on the north bank of the River Ouse. It measured 1,600 pes monetalis (473.6m) by 1,360 pes monetalis (402.56m) and covered an area of 50 acre. The standard suit of streets running through the castra is assumed, although some evidence exists for the via praetoria, via decumana and via sagularis. Much of the modern understanding of the Fortress defences has come from extensive excavations undertaken by Leslie Peter Wenham.</p><br>
<p>The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108.</p><br>
<p>Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within the fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years. Estimates suggest that over 48,000m of stone were required, largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries nearby the Roman settlement of Calcaria (Tadcaster).</p><br>
<h2>Visiting emperors</h2><br>
<p>There is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He certainly brought with him the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited Eboracum in 208 and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland. (The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height.) The Imperial court was based in York until at least 211, in which year Severus died and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta. A biographer, Cassius Dio, described a scene in which the Emperor utters the final words to his two sons on his death bed: "Agree with each other, make the soldiers rich, and ignore everyone else." Severus was cremated in Eboracum shortly after his death. Dio described the ceremony: "His body arrayed in military garb was placed upon a pyre, and as a mark of honour the soldiers and his sons ran about it and as for the soldier&#39;s gifts, those who had things at hand to offer them put them upon it and his sons applied the fire." (The location of the cremation was not recorded. A hill to the west of modern York, known as Severus Hill, is associated by some antiquarians as the site where this cremation took place, but no archaeological investigation has corroborated this claim.)</p><br>
<p>In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to Eboracum and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of the Empire, he may have retained an interest in Eboracum and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which (the Multangular Tower) still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine&#39;s reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>For the Romans, Eboracum, was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. This mark of Imperial favour was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers. In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>As a busy port and a provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Diet</h3><br>
<p>Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum. A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street, on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley. suggest hunting was a popular pastime and that diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels (mortaria) have been excavated from the city and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge.</p><br>
<p>In terms of the ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine. The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene. Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen&#39;s eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for the deceased.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>A range of evidence of Roman religious beliefs among the people of Eboracum have been found including altars to Mars, Hercules, Jupiter and Fortune. In terms of number of references, the most popular deities were the spiritual representation (genius) of Eboracum and the Mother Goddess. There is also evidence of local and regional deities. Evidence showing the worship of eastern deities has also been found during excavations in York. For example, evidence of the Mithras cult, which was popular among the military, has been found including a sculpture showing Mithras slaying a bull and a dedication to Arimanius, the god of evil in the Mithraic tradition. The Mithraic relief located in Micklegate suggests the location of a temple to Mithras right in the heart of the Colonia. Another example is the dedication of a temple to Serapis a Hellenistic-Egyptian God by the Commander of the Sixth Legion, Claudius Hieronymianus. Other known deities from the city include: Tethys, Veteris, Venus,Silvanus, Toutatis, Chnoubis and the Imperial Numen.</p><br>
<p>There was also a Christian community in Eboracum although it is unknown when this was first formed and in archaeological terms there is virtually no record of it. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles in 314. The Episcopal see at Eboracum was called Eboracensis in Latin and Bishops from the See also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Sardica, and the Council of Ariminum.</p><br>
<h3>Death and burial</h3><br>
<p>The cemeteries of Roman York follow the major Roman roads out of the settlement; excavations in the Castle Yard (next to Cliffords Tower), beneath the railway station, at Trentholme Drive and the Mount and Julia Fortunata. Inhumation burial in sarcophagi can often include the body being encased in gypsum and then in a lead coffin. Variations on this combination exist. The gypsum casts, when found undisturbed, frequently retain a cast impression of the deceased in a textile shroud – surviving examples of both adults and children show a selection of textiles used to wrap the body before interment, but usually plain woven cloth. These resins had been traded to Eboracum from the Mediterranean and eastern Africa, or southern Arabia, the latter known as the Frankincense Kingdom&#39; in antiquity This is the northernmost confirmed use of aromatic resins in mortuary contexts during the Roman period.</p><br>
<p>An excavation in advance of building work underneath the Yorkshire Museum in 2009 located a male skeleton with significant pathology to suggest that he may have died as a gladiator in Eboracum.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The military presence at Eboracum was the driving force behind early developments in its economy. In these early stages Eboracum operated as a command economy with workshops growing up outside the fortress to supply the needs of the 5,000 troops garrisoned there. Production included military pottery until the mid-3rd century, military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark-Peasholme Green area, glassworking at Coppergate, metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row.</p><br>
<p>In the Roman period, Eboracum was the major manufacturing centre for Whitby Jet. Known as gagates in Latin, it was used from the early 3rd century as material for jewelry and was exported from here throughout Britain and into Europe. Examples found in York take the form of rings, bracelets, necklaces, and pendants depicting married couples and the Medusa. of which six are known from Eboracum. These are housed in the Yorkshire Museum.</p><br>
<h3>Roads</h3><br>
<p>The true paths of all original Roman roads leading out of Eboracum are not known, although eleven have been suggested. The known roads include Dere Street leading North-West from the city through Clifton towards the site of Cataractonium (modern Catterick), Cade&#39;s Road Towards Petuaria (modern Brough), and Ermine Street towards Lindum (modern Lincoln). A road bypassing the south wall of the fortress, between the fortress and the River Ouse has not been formally planned, although its path is conjectured to run beneath the York Museum Gardens.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>The River Ouse and River Foss provided important access points for the importation of heavy goods. The existence of two possible wharves on the east bank of the River Foss support this idea. A large deposit of grain, in a timber-structure beneath modern day Coney Street, on the north-east bank of the River Ouse suggests the existence of storehouses for moving goods via the river.</p><br>
<h2>Late Roman York</h2><br>
<p>The decline of Roman Britain in early fifth century AD led to significant social and economic changes all over Britain. Whilst the latest datable inscription referencing Eboracum dates from AD237, the continuation of the settlement after this time is certain. Building work in the city continued in the fourth century under Constantine and later Count Theodosius. The locally produced Crambeck Ware pottery arrives in Eboracum in the fourth century – the most famous form being intricately decorated buff-yellow parchment ware painted with bright shades of red. The effect of Constantines religious policy allowed the greater development of Christianity in Roman Britain – a bishop of York named Eborius is attested here and several artifacts decorated with chi-rho symbols are known. Additionally, a small bone plaque from an inhumation grave bore the phrase SOROR AVE VIVAS IN DEO (Hail sister may you live in God&#39;).</p><br>
<p>Changes in the layout of both the fort and colonia occurred in the late fourth century AD, suggested as representing a social change in the domestic lives of the military garrison here whereby they might have lived in smaller family groups with wives, children or other civilians.</p><br>
<h2>Rediscovery of Roman York</h2><br>
<p>The rediscovery and modern understanding of Eboracum began in the 17th century. Several prominent figures have been involved in this process. Martin Lister was the first to recognise that the Multangular Tower was Roman in date in a 1683 paper with the Royal Society. John Horsleys 1732 Britannia Romana, or The Roman Antiquities of Britain, included a chapter on Roman York and at least partly informed Francis Drakes 1736 Eboracum – the first book of its kind on Roman York. Drake also published accounts in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Charles Wellbeloved was one of the founders of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society and a curator of the antiquities in the Yorkshire Museum until his death in 1858. He published a systematic account of Roman York titled Eboracum or York under the Romans in 1842, including first hand records of discoveries during excavations in 1835. William Hargrove brought many new discoveries to the attention of the public through published articles in his newspaper the Herald and the Courant and published a series of guides with references to casual finds.</p><br>
<p>The first large-scale excavations were undertaken by S. Miller from Glasgow University in the 1920s with a focus on the defences.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological remains</h2><br>
<p>Substantial physical remains have been excavated in York in the last two centuries including the city walls, the legionary bath-house and headquarters building, civilian houses, workshops, storehouses and cemeteries.</p><br>
<h3>Visible remains</h3><br>
<p>Remains of the Roman Basilica building, at the north side of the Principia are visible in the undercroft of York Minster. A column found during excavations and a modern statue of Constantine the Great are located outside.</p><br>
<p>The multangular tower of York city walls is a multi-period structure based on the south-west corner tower of the Roman Legionary Fortress. It is within the York Museum Gardens.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Bath pub and museum (St. Sampson&#39;s Square) displays remains of the Legionary bath-house.</p><br>
<p>A large number of Roman finds are now housed in the Yorkshire Museum. The York Museum Gardens have Roman sarcophagi on open display.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Roman city is mentioned in Robert Heinlein&#39;s novel Have Space Suit—Will Travel. It also features in King Arthur II: The Role-Playing Wargame as the base of a fictional group of Roman families who stayed on after the evacuation by Rome of Britannia.</p><br>
<p>The Roman City is the location for Semper Fidelus, a detective novel by Ruth Downie, part of her Medicus series. Eboracum also appears in the video game Total War: Attila as a provincial capital.</p><br>
<p>The Oquirrh Mountains is a mountain range that runs north-south for approximately 30 miles  to form the west side of Utah&#39;s Salt Lake Valley, separating it from Tooele Valley. The range runs from northwest Utah County&ndash;central, east Tooele County, and ends north at the south shore of the Great Salt Lake. The highest elevation is Flat Top Mountain  at 10,620 ft . The name Oquirrh was taken from the Goshute word meaning "wood sitting."</p><br>
<p>The Oquirrh Mountains have been mined for gold, silver, lead, and most famously for copper, as home of the porphyry copper deposit at Bingham Canyon Mine, one of the worlds largest open pit mines. As seen from Salt Lake City, the view of the mountain range is dominated by the displaced rock material (known as overburden) dug from the Kennecott mine. At the north end of the range is Kennecotts smelter complex which refines ore concentrates from the mine into useful metals. Dark colored tailings from past metal refining at the complex can be observed from the adjacent freeway, I-80. The value of the minerals taken from the range has been estimated to far exceed the combined value of those taken in the California, Nevada, and Klondike gold and silver rushes.</p><br>
<p>In the winter months, the mountains become home to a small population of bald eagles, which can often be found in the cliffs on the west side of the range down to the reservoir near the town of Stockton.</p><br>
<p>The range has many canyons and dense forests, consisting mainly of conifers and aspen. The area is also home to thriving populations of butterflies, deer, mountain lions, and squirrels. Two of the most popular canyons are Yellow Fork Canyon and Butterfield Canyon. Yellow Fork Canyon is home to a trail administered by Salt Lake County and numerous gated communities. Butterfield Canyon contains a paved road (with the exception of a 1/4 mile portion on the Tooele side that is well maintained dirt) that connects Tooele with Herriman. Butterfield Canyon road climbs to a summit of 9,180 ft. above sea level. At night the mouth of the canyon is a dangerous area as large herds of deer move into the farmlands for feeding.</p><br>
<p>The north end of the mountain range features a peak known as Farnsworth Peak which houses almost all Salt Lake City FM and TV station transmitters. The peak is also used for emergency communications (such as police, fire, and EMS). Several local businesses and amateur radio operators have transmitters on Farnsworth Peak.</p><br>
<p>Leros  is a Greek island and municipality in the Dodecanese in the southern Aegean Sea. It lies 317 km  from Athens&#39;s port of Piraeus, from which it can be reached by an 8.5-hour ferry ride . Leros is part of the Kalymnos regional unit. The island has been also called in Lèro and in İleriye.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 74.172 km&sup2;. The municipality includes the populated offshore island of Farmakonisi (pop. 10), as well as several uninhabited islets, including Levitha and Kinaros, and had a 2011 census population of 7,917, although this figure swells to over 15,000 during the summer peak. The island has a coastline of 71 km. It is known for its imposing medieval castle of the Knights of Saint John possibly built on a Byzantine fortress. Nearby islands are Patmos, Lipsi, Kalymnos, and the small islands of Agia Kyriaki and Farmakos. In ancient times it was considered the island of Parthenos Iokallis and linked to the Hellenistic and Roman literature on Meleager and the Meleagrides. The administrative center and largest town is Agia Marina, with a population of 2,672 inhabitants. Other sizable towns are Lákki (pop. 1,990), Xirókampos (908), Kamára (573), and Álinda (542).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Thucydides stressed the special importance of the bays and the harbours of Leros during the Peloponnesian War (431 BC – 404 BC), where Leros supported the democratic Athenians. After the end of the war Leros came under the sovereignty of the Spartans. The island had a famous sanctuary of the goddess Artemis.</p><br>
<p>It then followed the fate of the rest of the Dodecanese Islands during the years of Alexander the Great and his successors, the Roman years and the Byzantine period. After the division of the Roman Empire, Leros was part of the Byzantine Empire. On the island of Farmaco east from Leros, a few miles from Didyma on the Turkish coast, Julius Caesar was held as a hostage by local pirates for forty days.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian and Ottoman Era</h3><br>
<p>During the Byzantine Age, the island was incorporated into the Theme of Samos. During the thirteenth century, the island was occupied by the Genoese and then by the Venetians. In the year 1309, the Knights of St John seized and fortified Leros. In 1505, the Ottoman Admiral Kemal Reis, with three galleys and seventeen other warships, besieged the castle but could not capture it. The operation was repeated in 1508 with more ships, but again nothing was achieved.</p><br>
<p>Legend has it that then the island was rescued by the only surviving knight, barely 18 years old. He dressed women and children in the armor of the dead defenders, convincing the Ottomans that the garrison of Leros was still strong. Finally, on 24 December 1522, following the siege of Rhodes, a treaty was signed between Sultan Suleiman and the Grand Master of the Knights, Philippe Villiers de L&#39;Isle-Adam, and Leros, along with all the Aegean possessions of the Order, passed into Ottoman hands which ruled the island with brief interruptions during a period of four hundred years.</p><br>
<p>During the Ottoman rule, and along with the other islands, Leros enjoyed a privileged regime, with partial autonomy and self–government. During the Greek Revolution of 1821, the island was liberated and became an important base for the re-supplying of the Greek Navy. Administratively, it came under the jurisdiction of the Temporary Committee of the Eastern Sporades.</p><br>
<p>With the Treaty of London, on 3 February 1830, however, which determined the borders of the newly established Greek state, the freed islands of the Eastern Sporades were given over to the Ottoman Empire again. In the "Diary of the Prefecture of the Archipelago" of 1886, Leros, along with the islands of Patmos, Lipsos and Fournoi, belonged to the Ottomans. The island&#39;s administrative council was made up of both Greeks and Turks.</p><br>
<h3>The Italian Period</h3><br>
<p>In 1912, during the Libyan War against the Ottoman Empire, Italy occupied all of the Dodecanese islands (except Kastelorizo). On May 12, 1912, the island was seized by the sailors of the Italian Navy cruiser San Giorgio. The Greek inhabitants of the islands declared the autonomy of the islands under the title "The Aegean State", with the aim of unification with Greece, but with the outbreak of the First World War, these moves came to nothing, and Italy retained control of the islands.</p><br>
<p>From 1916 to 1918, the British used Leros as a naval base. In the Venizelos–Tittoni agreement of 1919, the island was to be returned to Greece, along with all of the Dodecanese except Rhodes, but after the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War, Italy canceled the agreement. As a result, the Treaty of Lausanne confirmed the Italian possession of Leros and the Dodecanese.</p><br>
<p>The new Italian Fascist regime actively attempted to Italianize the Dodecanese, by making the Italian language compulsory, giving incentives to locals to adopt Italian nationality, and clamping down on Greek institutions.</p><br>
<p>During the 31 years that the Italians remained in Leros, they set up a great plan to build and fortify the island, since its strategic position and its large natural harbours (the largest of which, Lakki, is the largest deep water harbour in the Mediterranean Sea), made it an ideal naval base. The fortification of Leros and the creation of a major naval base, ensured that the Italians had control over an area of vital interest to the Allies (the Aegean, the Dardanelles and the Near East). Mussolini, who called Leros "the Corregidor of the Mediterranean", saw the island as a crucial base for the Italian domination of the eastern Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<h4>Portolago/Lakki</h4><br>
<p>In the 1930s a new model town and major naval base, Portolago, was built by the Italian authorities. It is one of the best examples of Italian Rationalist architecture. Mussolini was said to have a mansion for himself in the town.</p><br>
<p>After Leros was transferred to Greece, it was renamed Lakki.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>From 1940, when Italy entered the Second World War on the side of Germany, Leros suffered bombing raids by the British Royal Air Force. As a result of the excellent anchorage provided to warships by the many natural coves, the island was the second most bombed during World War Two (after Crete). On 8 September 1943, as Italy could not continue the war on the German side, it signed an armistice and came over to the Allied camp. After the Italian armistice, British reinforcements arrived on Leros and other Dodecanese islands and the island suffered continuous German aerial bombardment. One of the largest attacks was on the Greek Navy&#39;s flagship, the Queen Olga, sunk by German bombers on Sunday September 26, 1943, along with HMS Intrepid, while they were anchored in Portolago. The island of Leros was finally captured by German troops during operation Taifun in airborne and amphibious assaults between 12–16 November 1943. The forces involved were paratroop units and a battalion from the elite Brandenburg division. The ground troops were supported by bombers of the Luftwaffe. Among them I. and II. group of Stuka-Wing 3. I. Group operated from Megara Air Base. The island remained under German occupation until the end of the war.</p><br>
<h3>Post-war history</h3><br>
<p>After the Germans evacuated the island, it came under British administration, until, on 7 March 1948, together with the other Dodecanese Islands, Leros was united with Greece. From the Greek nationalist point of view, approximately 700 years after the end of Byzantine rule, the Dodecanese was once again incorporated into a Greek State. During the post-war years the Greek governments used many buildings in Leros for various reasons. In 1959, the mental hospital of Leros was founded, whose original bad conditions have been improved. During the junta of the Colonels, the island was used as a place of internal exile for political dissenters,"Lakki is the largest of the four detention camps for men and women with Communist backgrounds who were arrested after the April 1967 military takeover." with old Italian barracks of the island used as an internment camp.</p><br>
<p>In 1989 Leros came to Europe-wide attention as a result of a scandal involving embezzlement of funds and the maltreatment of about 3,000 mental patients at an institution on the island. Funding from the government led to a rapid and substantial improvement in conditions. A June 2009 BBC report suggests these improvements have not all been sustained. In December 2015 the Greek Government, the Alternate Migration Policy Minister (Ioannis Mouzalas) and the Mayor of Leros (Μichalis Kolias), decided to build a refugees’ camp (“hotspot” able to shelter 1000 individuals), located on the Mental Hospital of the island of Leros which has been internationally known as “The guilty secret of Europe”, as mentioned in the Observer’s article, written by journalist John Merritt (Sunday 10.9.1989 London Observer). In the same space of Lepida (after almost 15 years of implementing deinstitutioanalization programmes financed by E.U.), about 200 patients are still accommodated in small rehabilitation structures. The symbolic and historical significance of such a decision is very important. Lepida Mental Hospital of Leros used to be an Asylum for people with mental health problems in which more than 3000 patients have died under harsh conditions. During the dictatorship period that Greece has been through (1967-1974), 4000 political prisoners were exiled in the same spaces of the mental hospital which were used as a concentration camp.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Demodocus of Leros, a sixth-century BC gnomic poet</p><br>
<p>Pherecydes of Leros</p><br>
<p>Georgios Roussos, lawyer and politician</p><br>
<p>Totis Filakouris, a soccer player for Panathinaikos during the years 1965–1975</p><br>
<p>Vasilios Rizos, a soccer player for Leros Soccer club of New York 2013–present</p><br>
<p>Olympia Karagiorgia, poet and conservation activist</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Leros Municipal Airport at Partheni connects the island daily with Athens. There are also ferry connections to and from Piraeus and the other islands of the Dodecanese. The Catamaran Dodekanissos Express and the Hydrofoils (only during the summer) connect Leros with most of the Dodecanese islands. For those who want to visit Leros the alternative way to Ferry travel (8–10 hours) is to fly to Athens and then fly to Leros with domestic flight or fly direct to Kos and then to Leros by boat (1 – 2 hours).</p><br>
<h2>Traditional Music</h2><br>
<p>Many local songs of Leros are among the most famous among the traditional (nisiotika) music of Greece. Among the most famous are Pote tha&#39;nixoume pania, Mes tou Aegeou ta nisia and Proutzos. Lerikos is the name of a local dance.</p><br>
<p>Saint Boniface Church is the Catholic parish church for the city of New Vienna, Iowa and the surrounding area. It is a Gothic-style church, with stained glass windows, a handcarved main altar, and a striking 200 ft spire The parish, part of the Archdiocese of Dubuque, is partnered with Ss. Peter and Paul Parish, Petersburg, Iowa - the two parishes share a pastor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the parish can be traced back to the 1840s when a number of German American families came to the area from Ohio in search of farmland. On January 6, 1846, Bishop Mathias Loras of Dubuque celebrated Mass at the home of Hermann Wiechmann, the first Mass celebrated in the New Vienna area. For the next two years, Mass was celebrated at the Wiechmann home.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the first permanent structure was built. This wood building measured 24 ft by 30 ft and had walls that were 10 ft high.</p><br>
<p>By 1853, the population had increased to the point that a new structure was needed. Construction of this new church was completed in 1855. The church was 64 by 100 ft with 22 ft-high walls. A local resident, William Steffen, Sr., was sent with two teams of horses to get three bells for the church. He arrived back in New Vienna just before Easter; the bells were raised in time to chime for the first time on Easter Sunday. This second structure was used until 1887.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the third and present building was completed. This building is 172 ft long by 62 ft wide. The walls are 35 ft high. The stained glass windows are 14 ft wide by 30 ft high. The steeple is 200 ft high.</p><br>
<p>The church has five altars made of carved wood which are still present in the church today. The old high altar was built by E. Hackner of La Crosse, Wisconsin. This altar cost $5,000.</p><br>
<p>The organ was built in 1891 by the Schuelke Organ Company. The organ at St. Boniface is one of the few intact Schuelke organs that still exist today. Aside from regular maintenance, the organ has remained basically unaltered over the years. One of the few alterations made to the organ was the addition of an electric blower in the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In 2010 workers began constructing a new entryway on the north side of the church when a sinkhole that was 12 feet wide and 8 feet deep was discovered in the basement. It is not known when the sinkhole formed, but if it had taken out a nearby pillar it could have caused the church building to collapse.</p><br>
<p>Megara Hyblaea  – perhaps identical with Hybla Major – is the name of an ancient Greek colony in Sicily, situated near Augusta on the east coast, 20 km north-northwest of Syracuse, Italy, on the deep bay formed by the Xiphonian promontory. There were at least three  cities named "Hybla" in ancient accounts of Sicily which are often confounded with each other, and among which it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was unquestionably a Greek colony, deriving its origin from the Megara in Greece; and the circumstances attending its foundation are related in detail by Thucydides. He tells us that a colony from Megara, under the command of a leader named Lamis, arrived in Sicily about the time that Leontini was founded by the Chalcidic colonists, and settled themselves first near the mouth of the river Pantagias, at a place called Trotilon (Latin: Trotilus, modern Brucoli). From thence they removed to Leontini itself, where they dwelt for a time together with the Chalcidians; but were soon afterwards expelled by them, and next established themselves on the promontory or peninsula of Thapsos (Latin: Thapsus, modern Magnisi), near Syracuse. Hence they again removed after the death of Lamis, and, at the suggestion of Hyblon, a Sicilian chief of the surrounding country, finally settled at a place afterwards called the Hyblaean Megara. (Thuc. vi. 4.) Scymnus Chius follows a different tradition, as he describes the establishment of the Chalcidians at Naxos and that of the Megarians at Hybla as contemporary, and both preceding the foundation of Syracuse, 734 BC. Strabo also adopts the same view of the subject, as he represents Megara as founded about the same time with Naxos (735 BC), and before Syracuse. (Scymn. Ch. 271-76; Strab. vi. p. 269.) It is impossible to reconcile the two accounts, but that of Thucydides is probably the most trustworthy. According to this the foundation of Megara may probably be placed about 726 BC. Professor Miller, in her reinvestigation of ancient source materials has determined that they point to various dates of foundation from 758 BC (per the Chronikon of Eusebius) to 728 BC (from her reconstructions of dates from Thucydides). Of its earlier history we have scarcely any information, but it would appear to have attained to a flourishing condition, as 100 years after its foundation it sent out, in its turn, a colony to the other end of Sicily, where it founded the city of Selinus, which was destined to rise to far greater power than its parent city. (Thuc. vi. 4; Scymn. Ch. 291; Strab. vi. p. 272.)</p><br>
<p>Nothing more is known of Megara till the period of its destruction by Gelon of Syracuse, about 483 BC, who, after a long siege, made himself master of the city by a capitulation; but, notwithstanding this, caused the bulk of the inhabitants to be sold into slavery, while he established the more wealthy and noble citizens at Syracuse. (Herod. vii. 156; Thuc. vi. 4.) Among the persons thus removed was the celebrated comic poet Epicharmus, who had received his education at Megara, though not a native of that city. (Suda, under Ἐπίχαρμος; Diog. Laert. viii. 3.) According to Thucydides, this event took place 245 years after the foundation of Megara, and may therefore be placed about 483 BC. It is certain that Megara never recovered its power and independence. Thucydides distinctly alludes to it as not existing in his time as a city, but repeatedly mentions the locality, on the sea-coast, which was at that time occupied by the Syracusans, but which the Athenian general Lamachus, during the expedition against Syracuse (415–413 BC), proposed to make the headquarters of their fleet; but his advice was not taken, and in the next spring the Syracusans fortified it. (Thuc. vi. 49, 96.)</p><br>
<p>From this time we meet with repeated mention of a place named Megara or Megaris (Scyl. p. 4. § 6), which it seems impossible to separate from Hybla, and it is probable that the two were, in fact, identical. The site of this later Megara or Hybla may be fixed, with little doubt, at the mouth of the river Alabus (modern Cantera); but there seems much reason to suppose that the ancient city, the original Greek colony, was situated almost close to the remarkable promontory now occupied by the city of Augusta. It is difficult to believe that this position, the port of which is at least equal to that of Syracuse, while the peninsula itself has the same advantages as that of Ortygia, should have been wholly neglected in ancient times; and such a station would have admirably served the purposes for which Lamachus urged upon his brother generals the occupation of the vacant site of Megara (Thuc. vi. 49.).</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Excavations carried on in 1891 led to the discovery of the northern portion of the western town wall, which in one section served at the same time as an embankment against floods — it was apparently more conspicuous in the time of Philipp Cluver, (Sicilia antiqua, Leiden, 1619) p. 133 — of an extensive necropolis, about 1500 tombs of which have been explored, and of a deposit of votive objects from a temple. The harbour lay to the north of the town.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-seventh century, the city was organised according to a regularised plan. An agora emerged with stoas on its north and eastern sides. This is among one of the earliest known agoras.</p><br>
<p>Lake Päijänne is the second largest lake in Finland . The lake drains into the Gulf of Finland via the Kymi River. The major islands are from north to south Vuoritsalo, Muuratsalo, Onkisalo, Judinsalo, Edessalo, Taivassalo, Haukkasalo, Vehkasalo, Mustassalo, Virmailansaari and Salonsaari. The largest island is Virmailansaari. The word saari means an island. Salo once meant a great island, nowadays it means a great forest area.</p><br>
<p>The largest city on the shores of Päijänne is Jyväskylä in the North. The city of Lahti is connected to Päijänne through Lake Vesijärvi and Vääksy canal.</p><br>
<p>An underground aqueduct, Päijänne Water Tunnel, connects the lake to Helsinki, providing the capital area with water. The deepest point in any lake in Finland is located in Päijänne (95.3 m).</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Päijänne is a famous boating, canoeing and sailing attraction. The 119 km long lake is connected by canals to Lake Keitele, Lake Vesijärvi and to Lake Ruotsalainen. Length of the open waterway for ships is 380 km. Construction of canals connecting Päijänne to the Baltic Sea has been discussed for decades. Nevertheless, the plan is still to be materialized.</p><br>
<p>Until the 1940s Lake Päijänne was a major transportation channel in the Central Finland. Numerous ships transported passengers and freight between the villages and cities on the shores of Päijänne. Nowadays, passenger transportation is rather a tourist attraction on the lakelands than the fastest way connecting the cities and villages. One of the most popular passenger transportation routes in summertime is between the cities of Lahti and Jyväskylä.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>There are 16,000 cottages on the shores of Päijänne. Most of the cottages are private owned and have a separate sauna cottage.</p><br>
<p>In addition to cottage tourism Päijänne attracts fishing, sailing, canoeing, rowing, paddling, trekking, ice-skating, snow mobile and nature tourists. The National Parks of Päijänne and Leivonmäki alone has tens of thousands of visitors every year.</p><br>
<p>The Clear and Drinkable Lake Päijänne South Association won a Tourism and Environment award presented by the European Union Commission in 1995.</p><br>
<h2>National Parks</h2><br>
<p>Päijänne National Park (Päijänteen kansallispuisto) is a national park in the southern parts of Lake Päijänne. It consists of 50 unbuilt islands and parts of inhabited islands. The national park has been established in 1993 and has an area of 14 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Leivonmäki National Park is situated few kilometres North East from the Northern part of Lake Päijänne. It is one of the youngest national parks in Finland.</p><br>
<h2>Cities and towns upon Lake Päijänne</h2><br>
<p>From North to South</p><br>
<p>Säynätsalo (at 62&deg; latitude, 08.3&deg; longitude)</p><br>
<p>Korpilahti (at 62&deg;01&prime;00&Prime;N latitude, 025&deg;33&prime;40&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Bowfell  is a pyramid-shaped mountain lying at the heart of the English Lake District, in the Southern Fells area. It is the sixth-highest mountain in the Lake District and one of the most popular of the Lake District fells for walkers. It is listed in Alfred Wainwrights best half dozen&#39; Lake District fells.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Southern Fells include the highest ground in England, a horseshoe which begins with Scafell and Scafell Pike in the west and then curves around the north of Upper Eskdale to take in Great End, Esk Pike, Bowfell and Crinkle Crags.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Eskdale, Bowfell has a footing in two other well known valleys. It stands at the head of Great Langdale — its east ridge dividing the two branches of Mickleden and Oxendale — while to the north is the Langstrath branch of Borrowdale. From all of these valleys Bowfell presents a striking profile with a conical top resting upon a wider summit plateau.</p><br>
<p>To the north-west of Bowfell the main ridge drops to the depression of Ore Gap, named after its reddish soil, rich in haematite. Below the col on the northern side is Angle Tarn. This round waterbody occupies a corrie beneath Hanging Knotts, small trout lurking in its 50 ft depths. Its outflow is a tributary of the Langstrath Beck, making for Stonethwaite. To the south of Ore Gap runs Yeastyrigg Gill, the main headwater of Lingcove Beck, flowing into the fastness of upper Eskdale. Beyond the Gap the ridge makes the stony three-tiered climb to the white-rocked summit of Esk Pike.</p><br>
<p>Southward of Bowfell the ridge falls steeply to Three Tarns, the col separating it from Crinkle Crags. The depression takes its name from a number of small pools, often two, but sometimes more after rain. Busco Sike flowing to the east is the longest feeder of Oxendale Beck in Great Langdale.</p><br>
<p>Bowfell sends out two subsidiary ridges to the east. The Band is a descending rigg starting from the southern end of the summit plateau. It is this ridge which divides Oxendale from Mickleden, making straight for Stool End Farm on the valley floor. The Band has a minor top about halfway down named White Stones, although most guidebooks do not consider it notable. The second ridge begins at the northern end of the summit plateau and crosses Rossett Hause, a sharp depression at the head of Rossett Gill, to make for Rossett Pike. The continuation of this ridge provides the connection to the Central Fells, forming the northern wall of Great Langdale as it crosses Martcrag Moor, bound for the Langdale Pikes.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The predominant rocks on Bowfell are the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Seathwaite Fell Formation, with interbeds of andesite outcropping near the summit. The pebbly sandstone and breccias of the Pavey Ark Member also cross the fell.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit area is a ridge running north–south with the final pyramid near the south-west corner and crags on three sides. The southern face is formed by Bowfell Links, an impressive wall of crag scarred by nine vertical gullies and with corresponding tongues of scree at its foot. A climb up these is neither pleasurable nor safe as they are extremely active loose rock channels. The eastern face carries a wealth of features including Flat Crag, Cambridge Crag and the Bowfell Buttress, the latter two providing good climbing. Flat Crag includes the Great Slab, a remarkable tilted sheet of rock which looks exactly as it sounds. Below these faces runs the Climbers Traverse, a narrow path providing an excellent high-level walking route to the summit from the highest point of The Band. This largely horizontal line contours around beneath many of Bowfells most dramatic crags, finally reaching the summit via a rocky route known as the River of Boulders, running parallel to the Great Slab. Finally on the north- east corner of the summit ridge is Hanging Knotts, a complex series of faces and outcrops looking down upon Angle Tarn.</p><br>
<p>The highest point carries not so much a cairn as a rearrangement of some loose rock at the apex of the pyramid. The panorama is excellent, improved immeasurably by the steep final slope and lack of foreground. Every major group of fells in Lakeland is seen well from this superb vantage-point — the Helvellyn range from end to end and the Langdale Pikes across Langdale — but the piece of the view is Scafell Pike towering above Eskdale.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>The Band provides the most popular means of ascent. Other routes from Langdale climb via Rossett Gill and Three Tarns. Bowfell can be reached from Stonethwaite via Angle Tarn although the way is long. Equally time-consuming although perhaps more picturesque is the long march up Eskdale from Brotherikeld, gaining the ridge at either Ore Gap or Three Tarns. Indirect climbs can also be made via Crinkle Crags, Esk Pike or Rossett Pike. The summit can also be reached from the top of Wrynose Pass by following the Right of Way starting close to the Three Shire Stone and heading in a northwesterly direction. The route takes in the summits of Cold Pike and Long Top.</p><br>
<p>Pella  is found in northwestern Jordan, 27.4 km  south of the Sea of Galilee. Pella represents one of ten Decapolis cities that were founded during the Hellenistic period and became powerful under Roman jurisdiction. With a history extending back into the Bronze Age, Pella expanded to its largest state during the reign of the Roman Empire. Pella is located in the Jordan Valley, 130 km  north of Amman, and is half an hour by car from Irbid, in the north of the country. Today, the city&#39;s sizable collection of ruins are excavated by archeologists, and attract thousands of tourists annually.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early History and Hellenistic Period</h3><br>
<p>Originally known by the Semitic name Pihilum, Pella has been continuously occupied since the Neolithic era. The city was first mentioned in the 19th century BC in Egyptian execration texts, and it continued to flourish throughout the Bronze Age. While the cause is not known, the dawn of the Iron Age meant the end of power in Pihilum, and the city, while still inhabited throughout this time, fell into major disrepair, and left the city without any major sources of trade or economic growth. The city was revitalized by Hellenistic influences that dominated the western world, and its name was Hellenised to Pella, in order to honor the birthplace of Alexander the Great. The city became a regional power once again after Greek occupation increased commerce in the area, and brought trade routes back through the city. Texts and archaeological records show that this area was largely populated during Hellenist reign, and constituted an integral stop for merchants during the Hellenistic Period.</p><br>
<p>About 80 BCE the Hasmonean King Alexander Jannaeus demolished the city of Pella, "because the inhabitants would not agree to adopt the national custom of the Jews" (i.e. Convert to Judaism). However, the city seems to have been rebuilt within a short time.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Period</h3><br>
<p>After Greek influences gave way to the Roman Empire. In 63 BC, the Roman General Pompey captured the city and it was integrated into the Eastern portion of the Empire. The Romans wanted all aspects of their culture to flourish throughout the empire, so during the height of their power in the East, they created a group of (10) Decapolis cities that would become centers for culture and government. The suffix of Decapolis, polis, was a title given to important cities that were under Roman rule, but remained self-governed and constituted a "free city-state" within the Empire. Pella was selected as one of these powerful cities, based on its location in the Jordan Valley and its already thriving economy.</p><br>
<p>This sponsorship by the Romans meant that the city was sure to flourish under imperial rule, but also meant that the city would have to be subject to a complete Roman overhaul when it came to art and architecture. While Pella still had its Hellenistic foundation, when the Romans began settling in the city, they built up temples, theaters, colonnaded streets, and integrated civic architecture and city planning into the pre-existing Greek city, in order to emulate Rome and assert Roman power in the newly colonized city. Pella also represents a significant location when it comes to the Jewish faith, as well as the early days of Christianity. Its been said that the city was the site of one of Christianity&#39;s earliest churches, making it a pilgrimage site for early Christians and modern Christians today. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Pella was a refuge for Jerusalem Christians in the 1st century AD who were fleeing the Jewish–Roman wars.</p><br>
<p>According to Epiphanius, the disciples had been told by Christ to abandon Jerusalem because of the siege it was about to undergo.</p><br>
<p>The fighting finally stopped when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine Period</h3><br>
<p>Pella would see its greatest power and growth during the Byzantine era. During this time, the city constructed hundreds of monasteries, and the influx of Christians into the region meant that the residential and commercial areas were also built up. It was during this time that Pella reached its greatest size. It has been recorded that Pella was one of the first Jordanian cities to initiate a Christian bishop, around the year 451 AD. The city is the site of the battle between Byzantine troops and Muslim invading forces in 635 CE (13 AH) at the Battle of Fahl. Just below the ancient site is a mosque which commemorates the death of one of the Companions of the Prophet Mohammed, who fell in battle here during the Battle of Fahl in January 635 AD.</p><br>
<p>The city proper was destroyed by the Golan earthquake of 749. A small village remains in the area. Only small portions of the ruins have been excavated.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>The University of Sydney and the Jordanian Department of Antiquities have been conducting excavations at Pella since 1979. In recent years, led by Stephen Bourke, the focus has been on the site&#39;s Bronze Age and Iron Age temples and administrative buildings. A Canaanite temple was uncovered from 1994 to 2003. In May 2010 Stephen Bourke announced the discovery of a city wall and other structures, dating back to 3400BC, indicating that Pella was a formidable city-state at the same time the cities of Sumer were taking shape.</p><br>
<p>The Koyna River is a tributary of the Krishna River which originates in Mahableshwar, Satara district, western Maharashtra, India. It rises near Mahableshwar, a famous hill station in the Western Ghats. Unlike most of the other rivers in Maharashtra which flow East-West direction, the Koyna river flows in North-South direction. The Koyna River is famous for the Koyna Dam and the Koyna Hydroelectric Project. Today the Koyna Hydroelectric Project is the largest completed hydroelectric project in India. The reservoir – Shivasagar Lake, is a huge lake of 50 km in length.</p><br>
<p>Due to its electricity generating potential through Koyna Hydroelectric Project, Koyna river is known as the Life Line of Maharashtra</p><br>
<p>The river meets the Krishna River, which is one of the three largest rivers in southern India by Karad at Pritisangam</p><br>
<p>The river is just about 100 meters in width and is slow-flowing. It is an olive shade of green during the dry months and a bluish-brown in the monsoon months attributed to much algae and aquatic plant life.The impounded water of the Koyna Dam though has submerged a significant amount of Rain forest of the Western Ghats, it has helped a lot to the surrounding forest by supplying water all round the year. Hence a wide biodiversity of plants and animals is observed in the evergreen forest surrounding the river.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and history</h2><br>
<p>Mahabaleshwar is the source of five rivers namely Krishna River, Koyna, Venna (Veni), Savitri, and Gayatri. The source is at the Panchaganga temple in old Mahabaleshwar. The legendary source of the river is a spout from the mouth of a statue of a cow in the ancient temple of Mahadev in Old Mahabaleshwar. Legend has it that Krishna is Lord Vishnu himself as a result of a curse on the trimurtis by Savitri. Also, its tributaries Venna and Koyana are said to be Lord Shiva and Lord Brahma themselves. An interesting thing to notice is that 4other rivers including Koyna come out from the cow&#39;s mouth apart from Krishna and they all travel some distance before merging into Krishna. The biggest river Krishna River that flows across Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.</p><br>
<p>The Montalvo Arts Center is a non-profit center for the arts in Saratoga, California, United States. Open to the public, Montalvo comprises a cultural and arts center, a park, hiking trails and the historic Villa Montalvo, an Italian Mediterranean Revival mansion nestled in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains. The mansion and estate were constructed from 1912–14 by California statesman and businessman James Duval Phelan. After Phelan&#39;s death, the entire estate was donated to California as a park and then a cultural and arts center as it exists today. The arts center maintains the estate in partnership with Santa Clara County. The mansion is a historic landmark, and in 1978 it was awarded inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of the villa now encompass 175 acre, more than the original 160 acre purchased by Phelan. The estate boasts several large structures as well as gardens and untouched natural areas. Montalvo includes two theaters, an art gallery, the historic Villa Montalvo, an artist residency complex, hiking trails and gardens.</p><br>
<p>The mansion itself boasts 19 rooms and two stories. The first floor of the mansion used to host art exhibits, but is now open only for the many weddings and other occasions that are held there.</p><br>
<p>The grounds include several gardens embellished with marble sculptures and garden structures. The Front Lawn is sometimes used as a theater for some of Montalvo&#39;s dramatic presentations, and the woods behind are open to the public. Since its bequest to the people of California, hiking trails through the surrounding Redwood-speckled hills have been added.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Phelan began construction of the mansion in 1912. The initial supervising architect was William Curlett. When he died in 1914, his son, Alex Curlett, took over supervision along with partner Charles E. Gottschalk. The construction of the building was completed that same year.</p><br>
<p>During his lifetime, Phelan hosted many celebrities and notables of the era as guests at Montalvo. Jack London, Ethel Barrymore, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and Edwin Markham were among Phelans many guests. Though not his only home, Villa Montalvo was one of Phelans favorites and is where he died. Some photographs, correspondence, and other mementos of his life are displayed in cases in the mansion&#39;s library and can be viewed if one happens to be attending an event for which the mansion is open.</p><br>
<p>Upon his death, Phelan bequeathed Montalvo thus:</p><br>
<p>The San Francisco Art Association (SFAA) assumed trusteeship of the estate in 1930. Within a year the association announced the intention to launch an artist residency program, the third program of its kind in the United States. The program began in 1939 with ten artists in residence.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, a shift in priorities for the SFAA left many people concerned about the future of Villa Montalvo. These citizens together formed the Montalvo Association. Trusteeship was transferred to the organization in October 1953 where it remains today.</p><br>
<p>On April 11, 1971, serial killer Karl F. Warner murdered his third and final victim, Kathy Bilek, 18, on the grounds of Villa Montalvo. It was the investigation into the Bilek slaying which led to his arrest and conviction for his string of three slayings of teenage girls throughout the southern Santa Clara Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Montalvo Association</h2><br>
<p>Today, the Montalvo Arts Center is a private non-profit cultural center maintained by the Montalvo Association through a partnership with Santa Clara County. The park and arts center are open to the public. Funding support is provided by the Friends of Montalvo memberships, as well as foundation grants, other private donations, and earned income via ticket sales and rental fees. More than 600 volunteers donate thousands of hours annually to support the arts programs and maintenance of the villa and grounds.</p><br>
<p>Since 1939, the estate has hosted "artists-in-residence" who live and work on the property. Artists range from musicians, painters, actors, writers and architects. While in residence, the participants produce works and give performances. Since Montalvo started its artists-in-residence program, more than 600 artists from 20 countries have participated. In the fall of 2004, Montalvo opened the Sally and Don Lucas Artists Programs, which offer facilities and staff that are supportive of the creative process as well as state-of-the-art technology.</p><br>
<p>A small gallery, called the Project Space Gallery, as well as the box office, are located in the building between the mansion and the Carriage House Theatre. Montalvo and its arts programs serve nearly 200,000 visitors each year.</p><br>
<h2>Arboretum</h2><br>
<p>Still called "Villa Montalvo" by local area residents, the Montalvo Arts Center hosts a 137 acre arboretum and botanical garden, located behind the center. It is free and open to the public during daylight hours and run as part of a non-profit organization for art, artists, and the local community.</p><br>
<p>The arboretum is adjacent to the villa and is an Audubon Society bird sanctuary. There are dirt paths leading out of a redwood canyon to Lookout Point at altitude 1,200 ft. A number of forest types are represented, including chaparral, evergreen, and redwood. Trees native to the Santa Cruz Mountains include bay, California nutmeg, Douglas fir, big-leaf maple, tanoak, and coast live oak. Other plants common in the area are broom, mountain mahogany, chamise, coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), madrone, manzanita, monkey flower, pitcher sage, poison oak, and toyon.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Phelan named Villa Montalvo in honor of the popular 16th-century Spanish writer Garci Ordonez de Montalvo. Montalvo coined the name "California" in one of his fables. In it he described an island rich with gold and jewels, peopled by Amazons ruled by a queen named Calafia. The Amazons in the fable employed griffins in battle. Images of griffins can be found throughout the arts center grounds, "standing guard".</p><br>
<p>Wheeler Peak is the tallest mountain in the Snake Range and in White Pine County, in Nevada, United States. The summit elevation of 13,065 ft makes it the second-tallest peak in Nevada, just behind Boundary Peak. With a topographic prominence of 7,563 ft, Wheeler Peak is the most topographically prominent peak in White Pine County and the second-most prominent peak in Nevada, just behind Mount Charleston. The mountain is located in Great Basin National Park and was named for George Wheeler, leader of the Wheeler Survey of the late 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Peak Features</h2><br>
<p>Wheeler Peak has an impressive headwall above a large glacial cirque, large moraines and an active rock glacier. The top of the mountain is covered by deep snow most of the year. A paved road runs from the Great Basin National Park visitor center to several small camping areas, the highest more than halfway up the mountain. The mountain&#39;s prominence is due to a Miocene detachment fault that brought the deep Cambrian Prospect Mountain quartzite to the top of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Jeff Davis Peak stands about one mile to the east of Wheeler and reaches 12,777 ft</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>A well-maintained trail, the Wheeler Peak Summit Trail, leads from a trail-head near the end of Wheeler Peak Scenic Drive directly to the summit, making for a hike. Afternoon storms are likely during the summer.</p><br>
<h2>Wheeler Peak vs. Boundary Peak</h2><br>
<p>The distinction of highest point in Nevada goes to the summit of Boundary Peak, so named because it is just east of the Nevada-California border, at the northern terminus of the White Mountains. Wheeler Peak is, however, the tallest independent mountain in the state since Boundary Peak is considered a subsidiary summit of Montgomery Peak, whose summit is in California. The topographic prominence of Boundary Peak is 253 ft, which falls under the often used 300 ft cutoff for an independent peak. Also, Boundary Peak is less than 1 mi away from its higher neighbor, while Wheeler Peak is over 230 miles from the nearest higher peak.</p><br>
<p>By contrast the prominence of Wheeler Peak, at 7,563 ft, is the twelfth largest in the contiguous United States. It is also the twelfth most topographically isolated summit in the contiguous United States.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby features</h2><br>
<p>The limestone Lehman Caves, at the base of the mountain, feature a large collection of shield formations. Tours of the caves are offered year round by the National Park Service. Higher up on the glacial moraine is a grove of ancient Great Basin Bristlecone Pines of great age. A Bristlecone Pine named Prometheus, which was at least 4,862 years old and the oldest known non-clonal organism, grew here before it was inadvertently cut down in 1964 as part of a research project. Limber Pine, which can live for over 1,000 years, are also found in the area.</p><br>
<p>Fairfield is a fell in the English Lake District. It is the highest of a group of hills in the Eastern Fells, standing to the south of the Helvellyn range.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>There is a marked contrast between the character of the northern and southern flanks of Fairfield. Alfred Wainwright in his influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells wrote that "From the south it appears as a great horseshoe of grassy slopes below a consistently high skyline...but lacking those dramatic qualities that appeal most to the lover of hills. But on the north side the Fairfield range is magnificent: here are dark precipices, long fans of scree...desolate combes and deep valleys."</p><br>
<p>Fairfield has connecting ridges to several other fells and in plan view can be likened to a bow-tie. The top has an east–west axis with ridges running out north and south from each end.</p><br>
<p>The two southern arms make up the popular walk, the Fairfield horseshoe, which starts in Ambleside and makes a circuit of the valley of Rydale to the south. On the western side, descending from Fairfield are Great Rigg, Heron Pike and Nab Scar while the eastern ridge bears the tops of Hart Crag, Dove Crag, High Pike and Low Pike.</p><br>
<p>The north-western ridge of Fairfield crosses Deepdale Hause to St Sunday Crag whilst that to the north east is a short rocky spur into Deepdale, dropping over Greenhow End. A fifth line of high ground, less a ridge than a salient in the breast of the fell, runs due west to Seat Sandal across Grisedale Hause.</p><br>
<p>The northern and eastern faces all loom above the desolate upper Deepdale, which is divided by Greenhow End. This short rocky spur has Hutaple Crag on the west and Scrubby Crag on the east. The corries of Cawk Cove and Link Cove lie on either side, each with a steep headwall formed by the flanks of Fairfield.</p><br>
<h2>Grisedale Tarn</h2><br>
<p>North-west of Fairfield is Grisedale Tarn at around 1,770 ft. This sizeable tarn has a depth of over 100 ft and holds brown trout, perch and eels. It is also the legendary resting place of the crown of Dunmail, following his—perhaps equally legendary—defeat in battle at Dunmail Raise. The outflow is to Ullswater, 3 mi to the north-east along the strath of Grisedale. The south western flank of Fairfield looks down on Tongue Gill, a feeder of Raise Beck and Grasmere.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The volcaniclastic sandstone and lapilli-tuff of the Deepdale Formation overlie the dacitic lapilli-tuff of the Helvellyn Formation.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit is a rough stony plateau with the high point at the western end above the brink of Cawk Cove. The top is very flat and there are many cairns, including a pair of large windbreaks near the high point.</p><br>
<p>Guidebook writers warn that it is easy to get lost in mist and that the cautious walker should beware of the presence of precipices to the north and west. The vista is fine, with all of the major fell groups well seen and views down into the abyss of Deepdale only yards away.</p><br>
<p>Other fells visible at close hand include Helvellyn (with its spectacular arête Striding Edge), Nethermost Pike, Saint Sunday Crag and Cofa Pike (a subsidiary summit of Fairfield).</p><br>
<p>The view south towards Ambleside and Rydal over Rydal Head is also extensive, with Windermere and Coniston Water in view.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Fairfield is most commonly climbed as the high point of the Fairfield horseshoe, a walk which has no agreed direction of travel. Coming from Great Rigg, the long grassy ridge heads directly for the summit, whilst the walker arriving from Hart Crag climbs up from Link Hause with a fine view of Scrubby Crag to the right, before the stony traverse of Fairfield summit.</p><br>
<p>Perhaps the finest indirect ascent is from Patterdale via Birks and St Sunday Crag, following the fine narrow ridge down to Deepdale Hause before ascending rough ground to Cofa Pike. This subsidiary top of Fairfield has a fine peaked profile, quite outdoing its parent until the wide tabletop comes into view behind. A further rock tor is surmounted before the summit windbreaks are reached. From St Sunday Crag onwards the northern crags of Fairfield are seen in their full and wild glory.</p><br>
<p>Fairfield can be climbed via Grisedale Hause, either up Tongue Gill from Grasmere, from Dunmail Raise or from Patterdale. The path up from the Hause is a rough zigzag up worsening scree. Grisedale Hause can also be reached as a ridge walk from Seat Sandal, or by cutting across the outlet of Grisedale Tarn from Dollywaggon Pike and the Helvellyns. In this way Fairfield forms part of the Threlkeld–Kirkstone Walk, which continues over Fairfield summit to Dove Crag and Red Screes.</p><br>
<p>A more challenging route climbs out of Deepdale, veering into the lower part of Link Cove before surmounting Greenhow End and The Step. Deepdale Hause can also be gained from this side, but climbs direct out of Link Cove or Cowk Cove are not practicable for walkers.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramas</h2><br>
<p>Computer-generated panorama from summit: http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ENGP/Fairfield.png</p><br>
<p>Playland, often called Rye Playland and also known as Playland Amusement Park, is an amusement park located in Rye, New York. It was owned and run by Westchester County, who will operate the park until 2018, when it is expected that Standard Amusements LLC will take over operations.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Playland&#39;s waterfront area of Westchester County along the Long Island Sound was the site of a growing collection of recreational developments, including hotels, resorts, and "amusement areas". Local residents concerned about what a county report described as "unsavory crowds" induced the Westchester County Park Association to purchase two existing theme parks, Rye Beach and Paradise Park, and planned a local-government-sponsored amusement park in their stead.</p><br>
<p>Frank Darling, a veteran park manager with experience at Coney Island and the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley, was hired to design and run the new park, called Playland. The well-known NYC architectural firm Walker & Gillette and landscape architect Gilmore D. Clarke were commissioned to produce a comprehensive design of both buildings and grounds, making Playland the first planned amusement park in the country. Their asymmetrical beaux arts plan integrated Playland’s three major components. The first component, a swimming park, is defined by a semi-elliptical beach, boardwalk, and arcade. At the center of this arcade, a Spanish Revival bathhouse and pool terminates the automobile approach along Playland Parkway and its twin towers frame a view of Long Island Sound. The second component, an amusement park, is laid out along an axial landscaped mall at roughly 90 degrees to the Parkway approach. An entrance plaza with central fountain at the beach end of this axis is defined by corner pavilions and anchored by a casino and ice rink building. The axial mall is flanked by colonnades which serve to visually organize the various rides, games, and restaurants on each outboard side. A midway cross-axis terminates in a gate at the large parking lot on its inland end and at a promontory at its waterside end. The main axis terminates in a 100 foot tall Music Tower that now has a performance stage at its base. All original amusement park buildings are in an Art Deco style. The third component, a boating lake, lies beyond the tower. Its boathouse consists of two pavilions symmetrically flanking a central colonnade, facing a terrace and boat dock and the lake. Construction commenced in September 1927 and was completed in six months. The park began operation on May 26, 1928.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1929, the Dragon Coaster serves as the park&#39;s mascot and appears in the Playland logo. The Dragon Coaster is one of roughly 100 wooden roller coasters still in operation in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The "Ice Casino", built in 1929, originally contained a main ice rink as well as a full dance floor on the second floor that functioned as a dance hall through the 1940s and &#39;50s. It also had a full service fine-dining restaurant and an outdoor café. It had smaller dining rooms upstairs for upscale private dinners. A renovation in the 1970s added a kiddie rink as well as a mid-sized ice rink. A renovation to the main ice rink that included a new surface, boards and glass was completed in 2007 for the Empire State Games.</p><br>
<p>Playland is home to the "Grand Carousel", a 1915 Mangels-Carmel carousel. It has four rows with 48 jumpers, 18 standers and three chariots. It was originally in New Haven, Connecticut, and moved to Playland when the park opened in 1927. The Grand Carousel has a rare band organ built by the Gavioli company in Italy. The organ enclosure features two male figures that strike bells in time to the music while the central female figure moves a baton. The Grand Carousel contains designs including those on the horses that are completely hand-carved and painted by Charles Carmel from Brooklyn, New York. The horses possess many unique traits that include elaborate "fish scale" blankets, inlaid gemstones, armor and lolling tongues on several.</p><br>
<p>Playland is also home to one of only three "Derby Racers" still in existence. The Derby Racer was built in 1927 for Playland by Prior & Church with horses carved by Marcus Charles Illions, a turn of the century New York carousel horse carver. The Derby Racer rotates at 25 mph - three times the speed of a normal carousel. The horses move back and forth as well as up and down, simulating a true gallop as it races around the track. The other "Derby Racers" are located at Cedar Point, in Sandusky, Ohio; and Blackpool Pleasure Beach, in Blackpool, Lancashire, United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>The Dragon Coaster, Playland Amusement Parks iconic attraction, is a wooden roller coaster which was opened in 1929. Designed and built by amusement ride creator Frederick A. Church (also the co-inventor of the Derby Racer), the Dragon Coaster has approximately 3,400 ft of track and is approximately 85 ft tall at its highest point. It has a tunnel along its span, a common feature of wooden roller coasters from the 1920s. The tunnel resembles the body of a dragon, and the opening of the tunnel resembles a dragons mouth. The dragon has eyes that light up, and it blows steam from its nostrils. Playland Park removed the classic Prior and Church trains in 1989 and replaced them with Morgan trains because the P.T.C.s did not have up-to-date safety technology such as lap bars and other items. The Dragon Coaster is still in operation to this day and is classified as one of the park&#39;s seven "classic" rides, along with The Whip and Ye Olde Mill (an indoor dark boat ride involving gnomes).</p><br>
<p>In 1927, construction began on the Airplane Coaster, overseen by Frank W. Darling. It was originally thought that the Traver Engineering Company had been responsible for the construction of this ride; however, in 1983 the original blueprints, signed by Fred Church, were discovered in an attic at the park, disproving the Traver Company misconception. Known originally as "Airplane Dips", its name was changed to "Aero-coaster" and then finally to "Airplane Coaster". The ride was dismantled in 1957.</p><br>
<p>Playland is also home to the Kiddie Coaster, built in 1928. It is an ACE Coaster Classic.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, a major fire at the amusement park claimed some of Rye Playland&#39;s all-time classic attractions, including the original Bumper Car ride and the "Magic Carpet" Funhouse.</p><br>
<p>Playland was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.</p><br>
<p>The latest coaster to be installed is "Super Flight", in which the rider lies on his or her stomach, in a caged car with three other people, all in a single row. Cars are released one at a time, allowing multiple cars to be at different spots on the coaster at the same time. The coaster contains two 360 degree turns, giving the riders a zero-gravity experience.</p><br>
<p>Until the beginning of the 2002–2003 National Hockey League season, the New York Rangers team practiced at the Playland Ice Casino. Currently, the hockey team from Manhattanville College, located in nearby Purchase, New York, plays its home games at Playland.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, Hurricane Sandy claimed parts of Rye Playland&#39;s boardwalk, flooded and caused substantial damage to the Ice Casino, and scattered debris throughout Read Sanctuary.</p><br>
<h3>Standard Amusements</h3><br>
<p>In May 2016, the Westchester County Board of Legislators voted 13-4 to give control of the park to a management company called Standard Amusements. Standard Amusements agreed to invest $27.5 million into the park, which it will manage for 30 years. Westchester County maintains ownership of the park, and will receive an annual base rent and 8% of the park&#39;s profits after Standard Amusements recoups its initial investment.</p><br>
<h2>Free entertainment</h2><br>
<p>Playland features entertainment performances on its main stage on the north side of the park towards Manursing Lake. 2006 included the dance show Oh-Zone as well as Magic and Spice featuring magician Brendon Yancey. In 2007, it had New York Nights and Shakin&#39; at the "High School Hop", a Grease-style performance. In 2008, dance shows included I Hear America Singing, a mix of new pop songs, and Summer Cruisin, a mish-mash of 1950s and 1960s music.</p><br>
<p>There is also strolling entertainment including kids dance and singing shows, costumed characters and drum acts that occur multiple times a day.</p><br>
<p>Playland offers fireworks on Friday nights.</p><br>
<h3>Concert series</h3><br>
<p>Playland features a free concert series every summer that is sponsored by tri-state radio stations, Pepsi, CulinArt, Manhattan Beer Distributors, Westchester County and the Westchester County Parks Department. The free concerts are usually on Thursdays and Fridays in July and August.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Plain White Ts performed on July 31, Bowling for Soup on August 9, and Teddy Geiger on August 23. The Plain White Ts attracted a very large young crowd.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, four free concerts were scheduled at Rye Playland. On May 24 the new Menudo performed. On July 18 Michelle Williams of Destiny&#39;s Child, George Lamond, Kim Sozzi and DJ Serg performed. On August 7, second runner up on American Idol Elliott Yamin performed. Finally, on August 14, British pop star Natasha Bedingfield performed to a capacity crowd despite the rainy weather.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Shontelle performed for a very large, young crowd on August 4, 2010.</p><br>
<p>Past free concerts at the park include Joan Jett, Lifehouse, Cyndi Lauper, The Bangles, Daniel Bedingfield, Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch, and Cheap Trick in 2004. Additionally around 2010 popular 80&#39;s artists such as Pat Benatar and Flock of Seagulls.</p><br>
<h2>Emergency services</h2><br>
<p>The Westchester County Police provide security throughout the year, but the park is only officer-patrolled on a 24-hour basis from April to October. In addition to county police, the park employs seasonal park rangers. Playland has its own EMTs, but paramedic and ambulance services are provided through Port Chester-Rye-Rye Brook Emergency Medical Service. Westchester County Police also provides policing services throughout the off-season. The Rye Fire Department handles all fire and rescue calls at Playland.</p><br>
<h2>Deaths</h2><br>
<h3>Dragon Coaster</h3><br>
<p>In 1988, an 8-year-old girl choked to death while chewing gum on the ride.</p><br>
<h3>Mind Scrambler</h3><br>
<p>On May 22, 2004, a 7-year-old girl from New Rochelle was killed when she fell out of the ride after she opened her restraining bar.</p><br>
<p>On June 29, 2007, a 21-year-old female park employee from White Plains was killed when the ride was started by a second employee while the victim was still assisting guests with their safety restraints. Park officials stated that a safety precaution (put in place after the 2004 Mind Scrambler incident) was not followed. A report issued by the State&#39;s Labor Department on August 24, 2007, stated that the ride operators were running the ride improperly. The ride owner was cited for providing inadequate training. Due to this incident the Mind Scrambler was closed permanently.</p><br>
<h3>The Whip</h3><br>
<p>In the 1920s, a 19-year-old man was killed after being flung off The Whip.</p><br>
<h3>Ye Old Mill</h3><br>
<p>On August 3, 2005, a 7-year-old boy from Norwalk, Connecticut died of blunt force trauma to the head after he climbed out of a boat on the Ye Old Mill ride, where he became trapped underwater by a conveyor belt. The victims family sued the county that owned Playland, and on March 24, 2009, the defendants were ordered to pay US$1.25 million, as well as create a scholarship in the victims name. The scholarship will be awarded annually to the Playland employee who exhibits excellence in safety and customer service.</p><br>
<h3>Accidental drowning</h3><br>
<p>On July 4, 2006, a 43-year-old woman from Queens drowned after walking into a man-made lake that is off-limits to swimmers. An autopsy showed the victim had a blood alcohol level seven times the legal limit.</p><br>
<h2>Current roller coasters</h2><br>
<p>As of July 2017, there are five roller coasters at Playland:</p><br>
<p>Dragon Coaster - Wooden - Built in 1929 – 3400 feet of track - 80 feet high - Approx 45 mph</p><br>
<p>Super Flight (Zamperla Flying) - Built in 2004 – 1282 feet of track - 26 mph - 2 inversions</p><br>
<p>Crazy Mouse - Steel (wild mouse) - Built in 2003</p><br>
<p>Family Flyer - Steel - Built in 2001 – 262 feet of track - 13 feet high</p><br>
<p>Kiddie Coaster - Wood - Built in 1928</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>The 1984 film The Muppets Take Manhattan features a scene filmed in Playland, although the scene is set in Michigan.</p><br>
<p>Playland was the amusement park featured at the end of the 1988 movie Big starring Tom Hanks. The scenes of his date with Susan and at the end of the film where the "Zoltar the Magnificent" fortune teller machine returns the adult Tom Hanks to his original childhood age/state of being were filmed on Playland&#39;s boardwalk.</p><br>
<p>Playland appears in a scene from the film Fatal Attraction with Glenn Close.</p><br>
<p>The park is featured in the Woody Allen film Sweet and Lowdown (1999) starring Sean Penn.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, the Playland beach was used for the film Tenderness with Russell Crowe, released in 2008.</p><br>
<p>The park was mentioned in passing in comparison to Adventureland amusement park on Long Island in the 2007 film Music and Lyrics.</p><br>
<p>Playland&#39;s Dragon Coaster was used as the backdrop for the closing monologue in the Jodie Foster film The Beaver.</p><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>"BET Now" taped a series of episodes from around the park including the pool, beach, boardwalk, Double Shot and Carousel on Friday July 25, 2008. The episodes aired the week of July 28, 2008.</p><br>
<p>The third episode of Are You Afraid of the Dark?, "The Tale of Laughing in the Dark", takes place in an amusement park called Playland; it was not filmed at the actual park, however.</p><br>
<p>The Naked Brothers Band made a free live appearance at Playland on Friday, August 24 at 6pm on the Music Tower Stage. They were taping an episode for the second season of their Nickelodeon show.</p><br>
<p>In 1980, the entire amusement park was used for a storyline on one of Procter & Gambles soap operas that they produced - CBSs/ABC&#39;s The Edge of Night.</p><br>
<p>On How I Met Your Mother, Marshall accepts a job at a law firm in "I&#39;m Not That Guy" where his only client will be Tuckahoe Funland, which is a parody of Rye Playland.</p><br>
<p>On Mad Men, Glen Bishop stops by the Francis household to ask Sally Draper to come to Playland with him for the afternoon in episode 88, "The Forecast". Also in episode 12 season 4 "Blowing Smoke" Henry and Betty are talking about moving, Henry states "I always like that place in Rye. Bobby reponds "Rye isn&#39;t that where Playland is"?</p><br>
<p>In the episode "The Good Life" of the Showtime series Billions, Bobby Axelrod takes his kids to a theme park called "Kiddyland." The park is actually Playland, and the Dragon Coaster is briefly shown in the scene.</p><br>
<p>In The Nanny, Fran Drescher&#39;s character Fran Fine mentions Rye Beach Playland in conversation.</p><br>
<p>The Pan Am (TV series) used Rye Playland to represent parts of Rio de Janeiro in the episode titled "The Genuine Article" which originally aired in October 2011.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>Mariah Carey filmed 1995&#39;s "Fantasy" music video, including appearances on the Boardwalk, the Dragon Coaster and the parking lot.</p><br>
<p>Hot Chelle Rae played their last known concert on July 25, 2014.</p><br>
<p>The John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame is a presidential memorial at the gravesite of USA President John F. Kennedy, in Arlington National Cemetery. The permanent site replaced a temporary grave and eternal flame used during President Kennedy&#39;s funeral on November 25, 1963. The site was designed by architect John Carl Warnecke, a long-time friend of the President. The permanent John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame grave site was consecrated and opened to the public on March 15, 1967.</p><br>
<h2>Original gravesite</h2><br>
<p>President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on Friday, November 22, 1963.</p><br>
<p>Initial press reports indicated that President Kennedy would be buried at Holyhood Cemetery in Brookline, Massachusetts, where his son Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (who had died on August 9, 1963, two days after his premature birth) was buried.</p><br>
<p>But the site for the Presidents grave was quickly changed to the hillside just below Arlington House. The site was chosen because the President and his friend, architect John Carl Warnecke, happened to visit the site in March 1963 and the President had admired the peaceful atmosphere of the location. The initial suggestion to bury President Kennedy at Arlington appears to have been made by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy agreed to the change. Although Kennedys sisters and many of his long-time associates from Massachusetts were opposed to burial at Arlington, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy visited the site with McNamara on Saturday, November 23, and concluded that Mrs. Kennedy&#39;s wishes should be honored.</p><br>
<p>On Sunday, November 24, 1963, Jacqueline Kennedy requested an eternal flame for her husband&#39;s grave. According to several published accounts, she drew inspiration from a number of sources. One was the eternal flame at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, which she and her husband had seen during a visit to France in 1961. She also took inspiration from the novel The Candle in the Wind (the fourth book from the collection The Once and Future King by T. H. White), which was part of the inspiration for the 1960 stage musical Camelot (the cast recording was a favorite of the Kennedys). Her brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, counseled against an eternal flame, worried that it might appear ostentatious or that it would compete with other such memorials at Arlington National Cemetery. But Mrs. Kennedy was adamant.</p><br>
<p>The President&#39;s funeral was set for Monday, November 25. This left very little time to manufacture and install an eternal flame. Overnight, Colonel Clayton B. Lyle and a United States Army Corps of Engineers team built the eternal flame: A propane gas-fueled tiki torch was procured from the Washington Gas and Light Company, tested, and slightly modified for emplacement. The Corps also installed a gas line to a propane tank 200 yd away to feed the torch. A mound of evergreens was placed around the base of the flame to cover the tubing and torch mechanism, and the head of the grave dug in front of the flame.</p><br>
<p>The grave was set in a plot of grass roughly 5 yd on each side. The site was about halfway up the hill on which Arlington House stands. The grave was placed so that it had a view of the Lincoln Memorial and Washington Monument, and was aligned with them. The president&#39;s brothers, Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. Kennedy, symbolically lit the flame after her.</p><br>
<p>On the evening of November 26, the site was surrounded by a white picket fence. Mrs. Kennedys mother, Janet Auchincloss, oversaw the disinterment of the daughter in Newport, Rhode Island, while Cardinal Richard Cushing (a long-time friend of the family) supervised the disinterment of Patrick Kennedy in Massachusetts. The two caskets were flown to Washington, D.C., accompanied by Mrs. Auchincloss, and the children buried next to their father on December 5, 1963. A small white cross was placed at the head of the daughters grave, and a small white headstone placed at the head of Patrick Kennedy&#39;s grave.</p><br>
<p>During the funeral, flowers were laid on the hillside above the grave. After the erection of the fence, flowers were placed inside the enclosure, leaning against the uphill side of the fence. A canvas-covered circular wooden walkway was built from Sheridan Drive to the grave site to give members of the public access to the grave.</p><br>
<h2>Development of a permanent gravesite</h2><br>
<p>John Carl Warnecke, a friend of the Kennedys, visited the grave with Mrs. Kennedy and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy on Thursday, November 28, to discuss themes and plans for a permanent memorial. Warnecke immediately concluded that the permanent grave must be simple and must incorporate the eternal flame. A few days later, Warnecke agreed that, although it was not required, he would submit the design for the permanent Kennedy grave site to the USA Commission on Fine Arts.</p><br>
<p>Initially, there was some concern that an eternal flame might not be approved by the cemetery. The Army Corps of Engineers was studying the installation of a permanent flame just a week after Kennedy&#39;s burial. But the Army was also considering removing the flame, as no such memorials were permitted in Arlington National Cemetery. On December 3, 1963, the Army concluded that the Kennedy plot was not part of the official burial section of Arlington National Cemetery, and agreed to continue to allow an eternal flame.</p><br>
<p>The USA government formally set aside a 3 acre site surrounding the President&#39;s grave on December 5, 1963.</p><br>
<p>The grave design process was placed under tight secrecy. An extensive research project was conducted in which hundreds of famous tombs (such as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and Grants Tomb) as well as all existing presidential burial sites were documented and images of them collected. Warnecke discussed design concepts with more than 40 architects, sculptors, painters, landscape architects, stonemasons, calligraphers, and liturgical experts—including the sculptor Isamu Noguchi, architectural model maker Theodore Conrad, and the USA Commission on Fine Arts. Noguchi counseled Warnecke to add a large sculptural cross to the site and to eliminate the eternal flame (which he felt was kitschy). Warnecke consulted with Mrs. Kennedy about the design of the grave many times over the following year. Hundreds of architectural drawings and models were produced to explore design ideas. On April 6, 1964, Warnecke sent a memorandum to Mrs. Kennedy in which he outlined his desire to retain the eternal flame as the centerpiece of the burial site and to keep the sites design as simple as possible. In the course of the research and conceptualization effort, Warnecke considered the appropriateness of structures or memorials at the site (such as crosses, shafts, pavilions, etc.), the history of Arlington National Cemetery, the vista, and how to handle ceremonies at the site. By August 1964, Warnecke and his assistants had written a 76-page research report which concluded that the gravesite was not a memorial nor monument, but a grave. "This particular hillside, this flame, this man and this point in history must be synthesized in one statement that has distinctive character of its own. We must avoid adding elements that in later decades might become superficial and detract from the deeds of the man," Warnecke wrote This conclusion drove the final design. The walkways and elliptical overlook were conceptualized very early in the design process. Landscape architects Hideo Sasaki and Lawrence Halprin helped design the approaches and setting, but not the grave site. For some time in the spring and summer of 1964, the design process appeared to slow as Warnecke and his associates struggled to design the grave site. But in the summer of 1964 Sargent Shriver, President Kennedy&#39;s brother-in-law, forcefully told Warnecke that "There must be something there when we get there." This spurred the design efforts forward. In the late summer and early fall, Warnecke considered massive headstones, a sarcophagus, a sunken tomb, a raised tomb, and sculpture to mark the graves. Very late in the design process, two abstract sculptures were designed but ultimately rejected.</p><br>
<p>The final design was unveiled publicly at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., on November 13, 1964. The walkways were intended to overcome the steep 45-degree incline of the hill up to the burial plot. The northeastern side of the elliptical plaza would be enclosed by a low wall inscribed with quotes from Kennedys speeches. The walkways, elliptical plaza, and terrace were designed to accommodate more than 50,000 visitors per day. At the time of the designs unveiling, the quotations for the low wall had not yet been selected by Mrs. Kennedy. The original design won near-universal praise.</p><br>
<h2>Construction of the new gravesite</h2><br>
<p>The plan was for work to begin in the fall of 1965 and be completed by the fall of 1966. The design required that the bodies of President Kennedy and his children be moved downhill about 20 ft. A 150-year-old oak tree, which was off-center in the circular pathway, was to be retained. The total cost of the tomb was estimated at $2 million. The Kennedy family offered to pay for the entire cost, but the USA government refused and asked them to pay only the $200,000-$300,000 cost of the grave itself. Most of the cost was attributed to the need to reinforce and strengthen the site to accommodate the weight of such large crowds. The USA Department of Defense formally hired Warnecke to design the approaches (although this was a fait accompli).</p><br>
<p>Work on the John F. Kennedy burial site continued over the next two and a half years. The Washington Gas and Light Company offered to build, maintain, and supply gas to the eternal flame at no expense. The final burner was a specially designed torch created by the Institute of Gas Technology with an electrical ignition which kept the flame lit in wind or rain and which fed the gas oxygen to create the correct color. A debate broke out between providers of bottled propane gas and line-fed natural gas as to which source of fuel should be used to supply the eternal flame. The debate was so vigorous that it broke out in public in March 1964. The cost of construction of the actual grave site was estimated at $309,000. A $1.4 million contract for construction was awarded to Aberthaw Construction in mid-July 1965.</p><br>
<p>Prior to construction, several design changes were made to the Kennedy grave site. The retaining wall behind the grave was removed, and the hill landscaped to allow an unobstructed view of Arlington House. Concerned that the grass on the burial plot would wither in Washington&#39;s hot summers, in the fall of 1966 the decision was made to replace the grass with rough-hewn reddish-gold granite fieldstone set in a flagstone pattern. The fieldstones used had been taken more than 150 years ago from a quarry on Cape Cod near where President Kennedy used to spend his summers. The burial plot, originally designed to be raised a substantial height above the surrounding terrace, was lowered so that it was just three to four inches higher. The bronze brazier shape for the eternal flame was also replaced. Instead, a 5 ft wide beige circular fieldstone (found on Cape Cod in 1965) was set nearly flush with the earth and used as a bracket for the flame.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the approaches required regrading the hill. Crews were forced to work with picks and shovels around the oak tree to protect its roots while engaged in regrading work. In November 1965, the contractors estimated that the site would be finished by July 1966. For a time in the fall of 1966, the Army considered floodlighting the site to permit night-time ceremonies, but this plan was quickly discarded. In mid-October 1966, design changes and construction delays had forced the opening of the new burial site to early 1967.</p><br>
<p>On October 18, 1966, The Washington Post reported that USA Army had announced that the President and his children would be reburied before November 22, 1966, in order to dedicate the memorial in time for the third anniversary of his assassination.</p><br>
<h2>Consecration of the new grave</h2><br>
<p>The permanent John F. Kennedy grave site opened with little announcement or fanfare on March 15, 1967. A few days before, the eternal flame had been moved from its temporary location to the new site. The reburial of the bodies occurred on the evening of March 14, after Arlington National Cemetery had closed. Earth over the existing grave was removed, and a small crane was used to lift the burial vault (which remained unopened) from the old grave and place it in the new one. The event was unannounced. Exhumation began at 6:19 PM and was complete at 9:00 PM. Consecration of the new burial site occurred at 7:00 AM on March 15, 1967, in a driving rain. The ceremony, which took 20 minutes, was attended by President Lyndon B. Johnson, Mrs. Kennedy, and members of the Kennedy family. Cardinal Cushing presided over the consecration. The final cost of the entire project was $2.2 million.</p><br>
<p>Landscaping around the permanent site was not complete at the time of its consecration, and continued for several more weeks.</p><br>
<h2>Operation of the site</h2><br>
<p>One spontaneous act of respect at the site was curbed almost immediately. Jacqueline Kennedy had requested that a member of the USA Army Special Forces (the Green Berets) be part of the military honor squad at President Kennedy&#39;s burial service. Also laid on the greenery were the insignia of a USA Army military policeman and the shoulder braid from a soldier in the 3rd US Infantry Regiment. The presence of the headgear was widely criticized after the dedication of the permanent grave site, and the USA Army (which administers Arlington National Cemetery) ordered all such memorabilia removed from the grave in April 1967.</p><br>
<h3>Alterations caused by new burials at the grave site</h3><br>
<p>Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated on June 6, 1968. An expansion to the John F. Kennedy grave site was dedicated in 1971 to accommodate Robert Kennedys grave. Robert F. Kennedys resting place is only about 50 ft southwest from the terrace at the John F. Kennedy site. Robert Kennedy is buried on the upslope side of the walkway, his burial vault marked by a white cross and a slate headstone set flush with the earth. Opposite his grave is a granite plaza designed by architect I. M. Pei and dedicated on December 6, 1971. A low granite wall similar to the one at the John F. Kennedy terrace contains quotations from famous Robert F. Kennedy speeches, and a small reflecting pool. As with his brother, Robert Kennedy&#39;s first grave was a temporary one, about 10 ft upslope from its current location.</p><br>
<p>The Kennedy grave site&#39;s approaches were altered at the time the Robert F. Kennedy memorial was built. Previously, the approach consisted of a series of long steps. But several individuals in wheelchairs appealed to Senator Edward M. Kennedy, and the steps were replaced by long ramps in June 1971.</p><br>
<p>Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis was buried at the site alongside her husband following her death from cancer in May 1994. Senator Edward M. Kennedy was buried about 100 ft south of Robert Kennedy&#39;s memorial between two maple trees shortly after his death on August 25, 2009, from brain cancer.</p><br>
<h3>The Arlington Oak</h3><br>
<p>The 220-year-old "Arlington Oak", which stood off-center within the Kennedy memorial gravesite area was uprooted and killed on August 27, 2011, during Hurricane Irene. The gravesite was closed to the public for two days to remove the tree and stump, but reopened on August 30.</p><br>
<p>On Arbor Day, April 27, 2012, a sapling grown from an acorn of the Arlington Oak was planted at the same site. Two other Arlington Oak saplings were planted nearby, while a fourth was planted in Section 26 near Tanner Amphitheater and a fifth in Section 36 near Custis Walk.</p><br>
<h3>Maintenance</h3><br>
<p>Maintenance of the eternal flame is an ongoing issue. Arlington National Cemetery experts said in 2001 that it cost about $200 a month to keep the flame burning. As of 2010, Fenwal Controls, a gas equipment manufacturer based in Boston, was the contractor responsible for maintaining the flame. The eternal flames original, custom-manufactured ignition system was contained in a weather-proof box buried a few feet from the grave site. The system controlled the flow of gas and oxygen to the flame and kept it lit via a high-voltage cable and 20,000-volt spark ignition electrode near the gas burner. No longer constantly sparking to keep the flame lit, the system monitored the flame and activated the ignition system only when the flame was extinguished. The electrode was specially designed for outdoor use. Oversight of the flames maintenance was provided by the Army Corps of Engineers, which contracted with Fenwal Controls to ensure the eternal flame was maintained and upgraded as needed. According to Arlington National Cemetery historian Tom Sherlock, when the gas burner required maintenance the flame was shut off. But maintenance needs were so minimal that no living Fenwal Controls employee had seen the interior of the ignition system. An on-site visit was planned by Fenwal Controls for early 2010 to inspect the eternal flame and conduct a review of the ignition and burner systems.</p><br>
<p>In late 2012, the eternal flame began malfunctioning. The causes of the malfunction were not known, but the automatic ignition system began clicking audibly. On January 31, 2013, Meltech Corporation of Landover, Maryland, was awarded a $350,000 contract to upgrade the eternal flame. The work required that the permanent flame be extinguished, and a temporary flame displayed to one side. Army Corps of Engineers officials said that this was the first time a temporary flame was used since the permanent flame was installed. A solid white fence surrounded the permanent flame during the renovations, although the headstones of Kennedy and his family were not obscured. The flame was transferred to the upgraded permanent eternal flame on May 17, 2013, and the temporary flame extinguished. The refurbishment replaced the original 1967 burner with one that did not require a separate oxygen supply, laid new gas lines, relocated gas pressure regulators, installed automated controls to provide a more energy-efficient flame, and laid new electrical cables and replaced aging electrical conduits.</p><br>
<p>In November 2010, the carved Kennedy quotations in the low stone wall of the plaza in front of the grave site underwent a major restoration. Power cleaning of the site and weather had made the letters difficult to read. The Knights of Columbus, a Roman Catholic fraternal service organization to which Kennedy belonged, donated $6,000 to have the letters darkened and more deeply incised in time for the 50th anniversary of Kennedy&#39;s inauguration. Gordon Ponsford, a sculptor who restored several major monuments at Arlington National Cemetery, performed the work.</p><br>
<h3>Accidental extinguishments</h3><br>
<p>The eternal flame has been extinguished a few times by accident. On December 10, 1963, a group of Catholic schoolchildren were sprinkling the temporary flame with holy water. The cap came off the bottle and water poured onto the flame, putting it out. A cemetery official quickly relit the flame by hand. In August 1967, an exceptionally heavy rain extinguished the permanent flame. A nearby electrical transformer flooded as well, depriving the spark igniter of power and preventing the flame from being relit. After the rain ended, a cemetery official relit the flame by hand. Two of the gravesite&#39;s flagstones had to be removed to access the transformer and repair it.</p><br>
<h3>The Emigrant Flame</h3><br>
<p>In 2013, the eternal flame was shared for the first time in its history. On June 18, a USA Army honor guard accompanied Irish Minister of State Paul Kehoe, T.D., in a wreath-laying ceremony at the Kennedy grave site. An Irish Army officer, accompanied by an Irish Army honor guard, lit a lamp in a metal burner (The lamp and burner were created by the Bullfinch company, which also designed the torches for the 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay.) The "spark" traveled back to Ireland aboard a special Aer Lingus flight, accompanied by Kehoe, Irish Army personnel, and a delegation from the New Ross Town Council.</p><br>
<p>The "spark" arrived at Dublin Airport on June 20, where Kehoe transferred the flame to Colonel Brendan Delaney. Delaney transferred the flame to officers of the Irish Naval Service. The flame was taken by the Naval vessel, which traversed the Irish Sea and sailed up the River Barrow to New Ross (the town which John F. Kennedys great-grandfather emigrated from in 1848). On June 22, several Irish Special Olympians carried the flame from the Orla to a ceremony at the Kennedy Homestead. Taoiseach Enda Kenny, Jean Kennedy Smith, and Caroline Kennedy used the burner to jointly light an "Emigrant Flame" in an iron globe to mark the 50th anniversary of President Kennedys trip to Ireland. The Emigrant Flame is now the centerpiece of the expanded homestead visitor center. Four days later, the flame went out, but was reignited with fire from the miner&#39;s lamps that were lit at Arlington.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural influence</h2><br>
<p>Immediately after Kennedy&#39;s burial, the eternal flame was being visited by 50,000 people per day.</p><br>
<p>The presence of the grave also boosted attendance at Arlington National Cemetery. The presidents 1963 funeral had been televised live, with 93 percent of all American homes watching. Satellites beamed the proceedings to another 23 countries, where another 600 million viewers watched. The television coverage transformed Arlington National Cemetery from a quiet veterans cemetery into one of the Washington area&#39;s most popular tourist attractions. Average yearly attendance rose from 1 million people in 1962 to 9 million in the first six months of 1964.</p><br>
<p>In 1964, the United States Post Office Department used an image of the eternal flame on an official postage stamp issued to commemorate the assassinated president. The stamp also used the words "And the glow from that fire can truly light the world"—an excerpt from Kennedy&#39;s inaugural address.</p><br>
<p>The Kennedy eternal flame has also attracted some unwanted attention as well. The leader of a group protesting segregation in housing was nearly arrested at the grave site in August 1967 after attempting to lead a group of protesters in the singing of "America the Beautiful". A mentally ill individual attempted to throw red paint on the grave in August 1971. A 23-year-old Army veteran committed suicide at the grave in 1972 by plunging a knife into his chest. The cross and the headstone marking Robert F. Kennedy&#39;s grave were stolen in 1981 and never recovered. In December 1982, an intoxicated Salvadoran immigrant broke into the cemetery at night and knelt before the eternal flame. He experienced a fatal heart attack, and fell into the flame. In 1997, thieves pried loose one of the paving stones from the terrace in front of the eternal flame and attempted to make off with it. They gave up after realizing the 500 lb stone was too heavy to move.</p><br>
<p>The Yana River , is a river in Sakha in Russia, located between the Lena to the west and the Indigirka to the east.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>It is 872 km long, while the upper Yana is 1,320 km long. Its drainage basin covers 238,000 km&sup2, and its annual discharge totals approximately 25 km3. Most of this discharge occurs in May and June as the ice on the river breaks up. The Yana freezes up on the surface in October and stays under the ice until late May or early June. In the Verkhoyansk area, it stays frozen to the bottom for 70 to 110 days, and partly frozen for 220 days of the year.</p><br>
<p>The river begins at the confluence of the rivers Sartang and Dulgalakh. As the Yana flows into the Yana Bay of the Laptev Sea, it forms a huge river delta covering 10,200 km&sup2;. Yarok is a large flat island located east of the main mouths of the Yana.</p><br>
<p>There are approximately 40,000 lakes in the Yana basin, including both alpine lakes formed from glaciation in the Verkhoyansk Mountains (lowlands were always too dry for glaciation) and overflow lakes on the marshy plains in the north of the basin. The whole Yana basin is under continuous permafrost and most is larch woodland grading to tundra north of about 70°N, though trees extend in suitable microhabitats right to the delta.</p><br>
<p>The principal tributaries of the Yana are: Adycha, Oldzho, Abyrabyt, Bytantay. Most of these tributaries are short rivers flowing from the high Verkhoyansk Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Verkhoyansk, Batagay, Ust-Kuyga, Nizhneyansk are the main ports on the Yana.</p><br>
<p>The Yana basin is the site of the so-called Pole of Cold of Russia, where the lowest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere are found. In the winter, temperatures in the centre of the basin average as low as -51 &deg;C and have reached as low as -71 &deg;C though in the mountains it is believed that temperatures have reached -82 &deg;C. Yakut folklore says that, at such temperatures, if you shout to a friend and they cannot hear you, it is because the words have frozen in the air. However, when spring comes the words "thaw" and one can hear everything that was said months ago.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Yana River area is the first known site of human habitation in the Arctic, with evidence of habitation found in the delta from as early as 30,000 years ago (12,000 years before the height of the last period of glaciation, or the Last Glacial Maximum).</p><br>
<p>In 1633–38 Ilya Perfilyev and Ivan Rebrov sailed down the Lena and east along the Arctic coast to the mouth of the Yana and reached the Indigirka River estuary. In 1636–42 Elisei Buza followed essentially the same route. In 1638–40, Poznik Ivanov ascended a tributary of the lower Lena, crossed the Verkhoyansk Range to the upper Yana and then crossed the Chersky Range to the Indigirka.</p><br>
<p>In 1892–1894 Baron Eduard Von Toll, accompanied by expedition leader Alexander von Bunge, carried out geological surveys in the basin of the Yana (among other Far-eastern Siberian rivers) on behalf of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences. During one year and two days the expedition covered 25,000 km, of which 4,200 km were up rivers, carrying out geodesic surveys en route.</p><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island, located between Hilton Head Island and Savannah, is the southernmost inhabited sea island in South Carolina. It is 5 mi long by almost 2.5 mi wide – approximate surface area of 8 square miles . With over 3 mi of beachfront, Daufuskie is surrounded by the waters of Calibogue Sound, the Intracoastal Waterway and the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Accessible only by ferry or barge, and with a full-time population of just over 400, Daufuskie Island encompasses a rich cultural experience, with environmental preserves, private communities, resorts, Gullah houses, diverse art galleries and history. The island was named a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places due to its Gullah and Civil War history. The island is also the setting of Pat Conroys novel The Water Is Wide recounting Conroys experiences teaching on Daufuskie in the 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For thousands of years early humans called Daufuskie Island home, as evidenced by ancient piles of discarded oyster shells exhibiting pottery shards from all phases of the hunter gathering period. Prior to European arrival numerous Indian tribes inhabited the Lowcountry and islands. Culturally and linguistically these tribes were of Muskogean stock. Daufuskie comes from the Muscogee language and means "sharp feather", for the island&#39;s distinctive shape.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1523, Spanish explorers were sailing the southeastern coast of North America in search of potential settlements. By 1565, the Spanish had settled in St. Augustine, Florida, and were pushing up the coast establishing and maintaining additional colonies. Concurrent with these 16th century ambitions for settlement, the French also made attempts at colonization in South Carolina Lowcountry areas. By the mid-1600s the English began to explore the southern coast. Prosperous Caribbean planters sponsored several expeditions to South Carolina. Captain William Hilton and Robert Sandford both made voyages to Port Royal Sound and vicinity. In July 1666 Sanford entered Calibogue Sound between Hilton Head and Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>It was during this period of early exploration that Spanish settlers introduced their distinctive Iberian horses to the Southeastern coast. Today the descendants of these horses are known as "Carolina Marsh Tacky". These sturdy, intelligent horses are particularly well adapted to the swampy and marshy lowcountry region. Examples of this rare breed can still be found on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>In 1684, Spanish soldiers enlisted the help of native warriors to fight Scottish settlers in Port Royal, and thus began the uneasy and difficult history of native entanglement in European settlement history. The inevitable clash of cultures culminated with the so-called Yamasee uprising that consisted of three brutal battles on the southwestern shore of Daufuskie Island between 1715 and 1717 that gave this piece of land the name it still bears today, Bloody Point.</p><br>
<p>The quest for religious freedom ultimately brought two European families to Daufuskie Island—the great grandson of French Huguenot David Mongin, and the daughter of Italian Prince Filippo de Martinangelo who escaped the Inquisition. The story of these two founding families is intertwined throughout their long history, and both rose to become powerful island plantation owners.</p><br>
<p>The American Revolution brought divided loyalties to the lowcountry. Daufuskie received the nickname "Little Bermuda" during the Revolution due to the residents&#39; Loyalist sentiments. After the Revolution, Daufuskie thrived with the introduction of world famous sea island cotton, a variety prized by European mills. High quality, sea island cotton exceeded all other long-staple cottons in fiber length, as well as fineness and strength. It was during this period of strong economic growth that several large plantation mansions were constructed.</p><br>
<p>The building of American wooden tall ships triggered the demand for timber from live oak trees abundant on Daufuskie. This hardwood species, unique to the southeastern coast, was prized by shipbuilders for its strength and resistance to rot, as well as its naturally curved limbs. Daufuskie was in the center of the "live oaking" trade crucial to the development of US maritime power. Shipwrights traveled to Daufuskie and the lowcountry to fell the oaks, hew them, and lug the pieces by oxen to coastal landings. The USS Constitution—"Old Ironsides"—was constructed with live oak.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the Civil War, there were eleven plantations on Daufuskie. Large homes were constructed on several of these tracts – Oakley Hall at Bloody Point, Melrose, and Haig Point. The mansion at Haig Point was unique as it was built of tabby. It was the largest tabby domestic building erected in coastal South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>Introduced in the southeast by early Spanish settlers, tabby is a type of concrete made by burning oyster shells to create lime, then mixing it with water, sand, ash and broken oyster shells. Three of the best preserved, tabby-walled single slave dwellings still standing in Beaufort County can be found today at Haig Point.</p><br>
<p>Early in the Civil War, Union forces occupied the Beaufort-area islands. Union troops on Daufuskie supported the siege and reduction of Fort Pulaski protecting the Savannah River entrance. This Union presence caused white plantation owners to flee, leaving property and slaves behind. After the war, Daufuskie&#39;s remoteness allowed Gullah culture to survive and flourish through the generations.</p><br>
<p>The Gullah language is a legacy of the original slaves and later laborers who remained once the plantations folded. The lowcountry was remote until the mid-20th century, but the isolation of Daufuskie created the perfect climate for the language and manners of the Gullah people to remain remarkably well preserved. The language is a colorful and rhythmic blend of West African and rural English dialect that is becoming increasingly rare to hear. Daufuskie is in the center of the Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor.</p><br>
<p>Following the Civil War the farming, mining, and timber industries were re-established in Beaufort County and the lowcountry. This activity meant the waterways around Daufuskie, with its critical position between Port Royal and Savannah, became very busy. Navigation aids became necessary to support the increased volume of shipping. In 1873 the Haig Point Range Lights were constructed on the island&#39;s northern end. This was followed by the Bloody Point Range Lights in 1883 built to assist ships approaching the Savannah River entrance.</p><br>
<p>From the 1880s the oyster industry flourished on Daufuskie. By the turn of the century the island had a population of 2,000-3,000, most of whom worked in this lucrative shellfish trade. The flat coastline, saltmarsh estuary, and natural oyster reefs, combined with a lengthy spawning season, make waters surrounding Daufuskie the perfect habitat for growing abundant clusters of meaty, briny oysters. Daufuskie oysters were known as far away as Bar Harbor and New York. It is reported that the Tsar of Russia preferred Daufuskie oysters.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, in the 1950s, pollution closed the oyster beds and the islands economy declined. Electricity came to the island in 1953 and telephones in 1972; however, with few opportunities for work, the population shrank to less than a hundred people, leaving a legacy of rich Gullah history. In the 1980s developers started making plans to make Daufuskie Island a residential development destination, and the planned developments of Bloody Point, Melrose, Haig Point, and Oakridge were born. Despite this progress and development, the islands historic district has remained untouched to preserve the Gullah culture, and today the entire island is on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Locations</h2><br>
<p>The island is now split into five parts.</p><br>
<p>To the northeast is the Haig Point Club, a private, member-owned residential club with around 150 year-round residents and over 225 homes.</p><br>
<p>South of Haig Point is the Daufuskie Resort, Melrose on the Beach. Formerly a private vacation club with an emphasis on golf and tennis, and offering a private residential component, this is now a publicly accessible resort. Farther south on the eastern side of the island is Oak Ridge, a small undeveloped oceanfront community, followed by Bloody Point, a semi-private residential and golf club community.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the island is unincorporated land. Several dozen residents live in a variety of accommodations, from trailers to beautiful waterfront homes with private docks. This section of the island received federal designation as a historic district in the early 1980s. According to a study conducted by the Savannah College of Art and Design, the island has excellent examples of Gullah homes which have not been altered. There are descendants of the Gullah people living in this area on land which they have owned since just after the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>A census in 2007 by the local Daufuskie Island Fire and Rescue Department counted a total of just 429 residents living full-time on the entire island. Rock musician John Mellencamp built a house on the island and uses it as a retreat.</p><br>
<h2>Culture and governance</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to the First Union African Baptist Church, which is Daufuskie&#39;s oldest building, and is still in use today as a place of worship.</p><br>
<p>There are two historic lighthouses on Daufuskie Island: the Bloody Point Lighthouse, built in 1883, and the Haig Point Lighthouse, built ten years earlier.</p><br>
<p>The island is part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, and has an elected council composed of representatives from the islands existing groups, including the Historic District, Island Conservancy, and Property Owners Associations. The Daufuskie Island Council serves as the official voice between Daufuskie and the county.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island School is a Beaufort County public school built in 1997. It is a modern facility with two classrooms, lunchroom and library. The students are in multigrade classrooms: pre-K through 2nd grade and 3rd grade through 5th grade. Generally there are around 15-18 students each year, and the school has significant community support and many volunteers on the island.</p><br>
<p>Students in grades 6–12 are transported to the Hilton Head Middle School and High School by a ferry. On Daufuskie, these students take a small school bus to the ferry. Once the students reach Hilton Head, they are picked up by a county school bus and taken to their appropriate school campus. The entire trip is about an hour and ten minutes each morning and afternoon. The students often do their homework or simply nap during the boat ride.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are no bridges that connect Daufuskie with mainland South Carolina; therefore all island access must come by boat. A public ferry makes several daily transits between Palmetto Bay Marina on Hilton Head and Melrose Landing on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>Beaufort County provides a subsidized ferry that transports residents. The Haig Point Club has its own private ferry service. There are also several private companies that provide high speed water taxi services to the island. Residents of the clubs, as well as some of the other residents on the island, use golf carts and bicycles to travel around the island, although there are a handful of cars and trucks, too.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Daufuskie Island Conservancy is one of several local organizations charged with preserving the ecosystem, flora and fauna, and quality of life on Daufuskie Island. Details of these groups and their meetings can be found at the island&#39;s only news source, The Daufuskie Front Porch. In addition, there is a web portal for the island with local interests and local business listings at "Daufuskie Tides".</p><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island boasts a wide variety of nature and animal life. One of the notable animals that inhabits the island is the fox squirrel. The bald eagle is also one of the magnificent creatures found on the island. During the day, you can see eagles soaring high in the air and occasionally swooping into the water for a catch.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island has a humid subtropical climate.</p><br>
<h2>Resort amenities</h2><br>
<p>The island has four golf courses: the Bloody Point Course, designed by Tom Weiskopf and Jay Morrish; the Melrose Golf Course designed by Jack Nicklaus; and the 20-hole Haig Point Signature Course plus the 9-hole Haig Point Osprey Course designed by Rees Jones.</p><br>
<p>The 20-hole Haig Point Golf Course is designed to be played as two separate 18-hole courses, one easier, one more difficult. The course has two extra "easy" par threes, and many holes have two sets of tees. It is a unique and ingenious design that allows every level of player to enjoy the Signature Course and its natural beauty. Ten of the twenty holes have spectacular marsh, sound and ocean views.</p><br>
<h2>Notable natives</h2><br>
<p>Sallie Ann Robinson</p><br>
<p>John Mellencamp</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Jimmy Buffett song "Prince of Tides" (from his 1988 album Hot Water) laments the development of Daufuskie and loss of the Gullah culture.</p><br>
<p>Pat Conroys 1972 book The Water Is Wide is set on Daufuskie, fictionalized as Yamacraw Island. The book recounts Conroys experiences teaching on the island in 1969. The book won Conroy a humanitarian award from the National Education Association and an Anisfield-Wolf Book Award. The book was made into a feature film, Conrack, starring</p><br>
<p>Jon Voight in 1974. The novel was also produced as The Water Is Wide in 2006, a Hallmark Hall of Fame TV movie starring Jeff Hephner.</p><br>
<p>In the novel Reefer Moon by Roger Pinckney (2009), the principle action takes place on Daufuskie, as well as other Lowcountry locations.</p><br>
<p>The adventure novel Daufuskie Island by John Lueder (2016) is centered on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>One episode of the National Geographic Channel television series Diggers (S2, E10; 2013) featured professional treasure hunters Tim Saylor and George "KG" Wyant visiting Daufuskie seeking pirates&#39; gold.</p><br>
<p>The March 2014 issue of Architectural Digest magazine featured the Daufuskie part-time home of singer John Mellencamp.</p><br>
<p>The romance novel A Ferry to Catch: Daufuskie Island, by Carol Bellhouse (2016), features life on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>Travel + Leisure magazine designated restaurant Marshside Mama&#39;s, at the County Landing on Daufuskie, as one of the "Ten Best Beach Bars" in America.</p><br>
<p>The Travel Channel show Bizarre Foods America featured a segment with Daufuskie native Sallie Ann Robinson on a show (S1, E8; 2012) dedicated to Lowcountry and Gullah food and culture.</p><br>
<p>The Primero River , also known as Suquía , runs through the city of Córdoba, Argentina.</p><br>
<p>The tributaries of the Primero (mainly the San Roque and Cosquín rivers) flow into the San Roque Reservoir; from there, the Primero goes east into the plains surrounding the city of Córdoba.</p><br>
<p>Once inside the city, the river channels into La Cañada, a waterway delineated by a stonework canal built through the downtown area, and inaugurated in 1944. About 2 km to the east, Isla de los Patos (Ducks Island) was repopulated with ducks and swans in the 1980s. During the crisis years of 1988–91 and 2001–02, the duck population was devastated, allegedly by people desperately looking for food. It was reported in March 2006 that a large number of ducks had died due to unspecified causes. Pollution by chemical waste is suspected as the cause, but avian influenza is also being investigated as a possible cause.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the city limits, the river flows towards the Algarrobos swamp and ends its course on the southern coast of the Mar Chiquita (or Mar de Ansenuza) salt lake. All in all, the river has a length of approximately 200 km and carries, on average, 9.7 m3/s, with a minimum of 2 m3/s and a maximum of 24 m3/s, with a peak during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>Pollution of the water and of the riverbank is a major environmental issue in Córdoba. Periodic cleaning operations are carried out to increase the quality of the water and to preserve the viability of fishing, both in the San Roque reservoir area and downstream.</p><br>
<p>Note: The major rivers of Córdoba are named by means of Spanish ordinals from north to south: Primero, Segundo, Tercero… (literally: First, Second, Third...); their indigenous names are also used, notably in official documents and geography textbooks. Most people alternate between the two names on a convenience basis.</p><br>
<p>Kings Peak is the highest peak in the USA state of Utah,</p><br>
<p>with an elevation of 13,534 ft. It lies just south of the spine of the central Uinta Mountains, in the Ashley National Forest in northeastern Utah, in north-central Duchesne County. It lies within the boundaries of the High Uintas Wilderness. The peak is approximately 79 mi due east of central Salt Lake City, and 45 mi due north of the town of Duchesne.</p><br>
<p>There are three popular routes to the summit; a scramble up the east slope, a hike up the northern ridge, and a long but relatively easy hike up the southern slope. The peak was named for Clarence King, a surveyor in the area and the first director of the United States Geological Survey. Kings Peak is generally regarded as the hardest state highpoint which can be climbed without specialist rock climbing skills and/or guiding. The easiest route requires a 29 mile round trip hike.</p><br>
<p>Mount Aragats  is an isolated four-peaked volcano massif in Armenia. Its northern summit, at 4,090 m above sea level, is the highest point of the Lesser Caucasus and Armenia. It is also one of the highest points in the Armenian Highlands.</p><br>
<p>The Aragats massif is surrounded by Kasagh River on the east, Akhurian River on the west, Ararat plain on the south and Shirak plain on the north. The circumference of the massif is around 200 km, and covers an area of 6,000 km&sup2; or around of Armenia&#39;s total area. 944 km&sup2; of the massif is located above 2,000 m.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology and names</h2><br>
<p>The name of the mountain is less often spelled Aragatz or Aragac. According to Armenian tradition, Aragats originates from the words Արա Ara + գահ gah, which translates to "Aras throne". Ara refers to the legendary hero Ara the Beautiful. Aragats was mentioned by the early medieval historian Movses Khorenatsi. In his History of the Armenians Khorenatsi claims that the mountain is named after Aramaneak, the son of Hayk, the legendary father of the Armenian people. Aramaneak called his possessions "the foot of Aragats" (classical Armenian: ոտն Արագածոյ, otn Aragatsoy; modern: Aragatsotn). The modern Aragatsotn Province, dominated by the mountain, was formed in 1995.</p><br>
<p>A relatively modern name for the mountain is Alagöz, which literally means "variegated eye" in Turkish. sources. A variant of the word, Alagyaz (Ալագյազ), was used in Armenian. A village on the foot of Aragats is named Alagyaz.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Aragats is isolated from Armenia&#39;s other mountain ranges. However, it is considered part and the highest point of the larger Lesser Caucasus mountain range. It has four summits, which are named according to their relative geographic position:</p><br>
<p>Northern—4,090 m</p><br>
<p>Western—3,995 m</p><br>
<p>Eastern—3,908 m</p><br>
<p>Southern—3,888 m</p><br>
<p>Situated 40 km northwest of Armenian capital Yerevan, Aragats is a large volcano with numerous fissure vents and adventive cones. Numerous large lava flows descend from the volcano and are constrained in age between middle Pleistocene and 3,000 BCE. The summit crater is cut by a 13 km long line of cones which generated possibly Holocene-age lahars and lava flows. The volcanic system covers an area of 5,000 km and is one of the largest in the region. More recent activity in flank centres occurred in Tirinkatar (0.48-0.61 Ma), Kakavasar, (0.52-0.54 Ma) and Ashtarak (0.58 Ma), as well as Jrbazhan in the summit area (0.52 Ma). The magmas feeding Aragats are unusually hot for arc-derived magmas, resulting in long and voluminous lava flows.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciation</h3><br>
<p>Observations shortly after World War II showed the presence of firn fields and snowfields on the sides of the crater cirque, as well as moraines and glaciers inside the crater. An analysis in 1896 indicated a surface area of 5.5-5.8 km, but rapidly retreated afterwards. The glaciation has been retreating on account of insufficient snowfall and increasing temperatures. Glacial meltwater dominates the upper part of the rivers descending from Aragats but its importance decreases farther down the valleys. Traces of prehistorical glaciation also exist, including thick moraines in the summit area at an altitude of 2,600-3,000 m.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Geological</h3><br>
<p>The volcano was constructed within four different phases. The first phase (possibly 2.5Ma) occurred in the main crater and subsidiary vents and was basaltic andesite in composition. It crops out in deep gorges. The second phase (0.97–0.89 Ma, by K-Ar) involved the main vent, subsidiary structures and was basaltic and andesitic in composition with ignimbrites and pyroclastics, with tuffs and lava flows emanating from satellite centres. It was the most voluminous and included the Shamiram and Egvard subsidiary centres. The third phase (0.74–0.68 Ma) while similar to the second was more restricted in regional extent to the Mantash River basin. The fourth stage (0.56–0.45 Ma) involved mafic lava flows from parasitic vents in the southern parts of the volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural</h3><br>
<p>Numerous engravings have been around the volcano, including rock paintings portraying animals and human-like figures in Kasagh River valley possibly of early Holocene age, and in Aghavnatun on the southern side of the volcano including petroglyps showing animals that were possibly created in the 4th to 1st millennia BCE.</p><br>
<p>According to an ancient Armenian legend, Aragats and Mount Ararat were loving sisters who parted after a quarrel and separated permanently. Currently, the mountains are further separated politically, with Mt. Ararat being located in Turkey.</p><br>
<p>Another legend tells that Gregory the Illuminator, who converted Armenia into Christianity in the early 4th century, "used to pray on the peak of the mountain. At nighttime an icon-lamp shone to give light for him, the lamp hanging from heaven using no rope. Some say that the icon-lamp is still there, but only the worthy ones can see it."</p><br>
<p>On May 28, 2005—the anniversary of the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia—around 250,000 people participated in a Dance of Unity (Միասնության շուրջպար) around Mount Aragats in a mass display of national unity. The quarter million participants, among them then-President Robert Kocharyan, formed a 163 km ring around the mountain. The organizers hoped the event would be included in the Guinness World Records. Prior to the dance, some 110,000 trees were planted on the slopes of Aragats.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby settlements</h2><br>
<p>The following settlements are located on the slopes or foot of Aragats: Ashtarak, Artik, Aparan, Talin, Oshakan, Byurakan.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Aragats has historically played a significant role in Armenian history and culture. Numerous historical and modern monuments are located on its slopes, some of which are listed below.</p><br>
<p>The 4th century mausoleum of the Arsacid (Arshakuni) dynasty is located in the village of Aghtsk, on the slopes of Aragats.</p><br>
<p>The early medieval fortress of Amberd and the nearby 11th century Vahramashen Church are located on the slopes of Aragats, at an altitude of 2,300 m. One source calls Amberd the "biggest and the best preserved fortress" in modern-day Armenia.</p><br>
<p>The Byurakan Observatory, established in 1946 by Victor Ambartsumian, is located on the southern slopes of Aragats, near the village of Byurakan, at an altitude of 1,405 m. It made Armenia one of the world&#39;s centers for the study of astrophysics in the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>The Alphabet Park (տառերի պուրակ, lit. "park of the letters") is located near the village of Artashavan. It was founded in 2005 on the 1600th anniversary of the invention of the Armenian alphabet. It features sculptures of the 39 letters of the Armenian alphabet and statues of notable Armenians, such as Mesrop Mashtots (the inventor of the alphabet), Armenias national poet Hovhannes Tumanyan, Khachatur Abovian (father of modern Eastern Armenian literature), and others. In 2012 a 33 m high cross, composed of 1711 large and small iron crosses, symbolizing the number of years since Armenias conversion to Christianity in 301, was installed on a hill near the park. A cross is added on an annual basis.</p><br>
<h2>In culture</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Aragats plays a special role in Armenian history and culture. Along with Ararat, it is considered a sacred mountain for the Armenians.</p><br>
<p>Aragats is a male first name in Armenia, used especially in areas surrounding the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Aragats is often associated with Gyumri, Armenia&#39;s second largest city. The mountain is depicted on the coat of arms of Gyumri. It is also depicted on the obverse side of the 10,000 Armenian dram banknote (in use since 2003) in the background of Avetik Isahakyan, a poet born in Gyumri.</p><br>
<p>Numerous Armenians poets (e.g. Avetik Isahakyan) have written about Aragats. Marietta Shaginyan compared Aragats to a "half-open bud of a giant pomegranate flower". In one short poem Silva Kaputikyan compares Armenia to an "ancient rock-carved fortress", the towers of which are Mount Aragats and Mount Ararat.</p><br>
<p>Numerous artists have painted Aragats. Some examples of paintings of Aragats kept at the National Gallery of Armenia include:</p><br>
<p>Fort Calgary was established in 1875 as Fort Brisebois by the North-West Mounted Police, located at the confluence of the Bow and Elbow rivers in what is now Calgary, Alberta. The site was purchased by the City of Calgary in 1974 and reopened in 1978 as a historic site and museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The construction of the fort was initiated on April 10, 1875 by a federal order to force out whiskey traders from the area. Commanded by Éphrem A. Brisebois, "F" Troop travelled north from Fort Macleod to find a suitable spot on the Bow for the fort. On arrival at the location they made a makeshift boat with a wagon box and tarpaulins to cross the Bow. Corporal George Clift King was the first member of the troop to set foot on the location, which is why he is sometimes cited as Calgary&#39;s first citizen. Construction began in August or September and the fort was completed in time to host Christmas dinner for the local residents.</p><br>
<p>The fort was constructed out of pine and spruce logs cut upstream and floated to the site. Buildings included mens quarters, a guard room, stables and storage facilities. Shortly after the erection of the fort, two businesses set up operation in the vicinity; I. G. Baker Company and the Hudsons Bay Company.</p><br>
<p>The post was originally called "The Elbow" or "Bow Fort". Captain Brisebois attempted to rename the fort after himself, but due to his unpopularity, it was renamed Fort Calgary in 1876 by James MacLeod, after Calgary House, a castle at Calgary Bay on the Isle of Mull, Scotland.</p><br>
<p>With the decline in whiskey and buffalo trade, the fort was down to four constables by 1880. However, in preparation for the arrival of the railway, much of the fort was torn down in 1882 and new barracks were constructed. The arrival of the railway in 1883 and the subsequent rapid growth and expansion of Calgary destroyed the post&#39;s reason for existing. A two-storey building that could house 100 men was built in 1888, since a fire in 1884 had destroyed one of the barracks.</p><br>
<h2>Deane House</h2><br>
<p>The Deane House was built nearby in 1906 for the Superintendent of Fort Calgary, Captain Richard Deane. It was originally constructed near 9th Ave and 6th St SE, facing east towards the barracks. Deane felt the previous superintendent&#39;s house was not good enough for his wife Martha. Although the budget for the project was $5,000, the total cost was $6,200.</p><br>
<p>In 1914, The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway bought the land for $250,000 for use as a rail terminal and demolished all the fort buildings except the Deane House. The house was moved to the southeast corner from its original location. The house was then purchased by C. L. Jacques in 1929 and moved across the Elbow River, where it stands today. It was used as a boarding house for several decades until the City of Calgary repurchased the building. In the 1970s it was used as an Art gallery, called The Dandelion Gallery. Today it is a restaurant. The Deane House is being renovated.</p><br>
<p>In 1969–70, an archaeological crew from the University of Calgary began searching for the Fort at the then current site of McCoshams warehouse. The site was eventually located under a storage yard behind the McCoshams building. The crew unearthed original wooden beams from the Fort and a multitude of historical artifacts.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, the city of Calgary reclaimed the land and it was designated a provincial and National Historic Site. The present site was reopened on May 18, 1978.</p><br>
<p>A replica of the 1888 barracks was completed in 2000 at the current fort site, followed by the erection of palisades. The site is operated by the Fort Calgary Preservation Society.</p><br>
<h2>Affiliations</h2><br>
<p>The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Ynez Mountains are a portion of the Transverse Ranges, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges of the west coast of North America. It is the westernmost range in the Transverse Ranges.</p><br>
<p>The range is a large fault block of Cenozoic age created by the movements of the Santa Ynez Fault. A very narrow range, the Santa Ynez Mountains rise quickly on its north side and drops off equally dramatically along the range&#39;s south face. The Santa Ynez Mountains begin as a series of volcanic hills near Point Arguello, and gradually transitions eastward into a single, well-defined ridge extending from Gaviota Peak to Matilija Creek. The range is somewhat contiguous with the Topatopa Mountains beyond to the east, which terminates abruptly at Sespe Creek.</p><br>
<p>The climate of the range is Mediterranean with semi-arid characteristics. Most of the range lies in the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. At the crest, rainier regions support large groves of conifers, primarily Coulter pines.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>They are principally in Santa Barbara County, with an eastward extension into Ventura County, and are unusual in being an entirely east-west trending mountain range—one of the few in the United States. The range is mostly within Los Padres National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The northern boundary of the range is marked by the Santa Ynez Fault, the massive thrust fault that uplifted the mountains 5 million years ago. Notable features along the fault which mark the boundary of the range include Jalama Creek and the Santa Ynez River to the west and Matilija Creek in the far east. To the north of the range are the San Rafael Mountains. The southern slopes of the range drop off into a series of alluvial plains adjoining the Santa Barbara Channel. They tend to be made up of unconsolidated riverine deposits overlying shale bedrock.</p><br>
<p>Laterally, the mountains extend from an eastern terminus at the canyon of the Ventura River and Matilija Creek, north of Ojai, west across the Santa Barbara County line, to immediately north of the city of Santa Barbara, and then west, paralleling the coast, to the city of Lompoc and Vandenberg Air Force Base. The Santa Ynez River flows just north of the mountains, paralleling them for most of their length. Before reaching Lompoc the mountain range diverges into two low ridges, separated by Jalama Creek, which then vanish into the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<p>The mountains parallel the Channel Islands to the south, another east-west trending range, a geologic extension of the Santa Monica Mountains; the two ranges are about thirty miles apart. Principal summits in the Santa Ynez range include Divide Peak, 4,707 ft, La Cumbre Peak, 3,985 ft (above Santa Barbara), and Santa Ynez Peak, 4,298 ft. There are several important passes, including Gaviota Pass in the western portion of the range, through which runs USA Highway 101 via the Gaviota Tunnel; and San Marcos Pass near Santa Barbara, through which runs California State Route 154 capped by the magnificent Cold Spring Canyon Arch Bridge near the summit.</p><br>
<p>The highest point, an unnamed and unmarked crest colloquially called Peak 4864, is located right above the eastern terminus of the range, near Lake Casitas and Matilija Canyon.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Geologically the mountains are young and mostly of sedimentary origin. The most common rock types in the range are sandstones and shales, with some limestone in the western portion of the range. Volcanic rocks can be found at the very western extremity of the range, near Point Arguello (Tranquillion Mountain Volcanics), while some schists of the Franciscan Assemblage are exposed in a number of locations.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Ynez Mountains were uplifted in the late Miocene Epoch, about five million years ago, along the Santa Ynez Fault, a feature which is considered to be active. Being young, the slopes are steep and the topography is extremely rugged; the gradient is highest on the northern side above 1,500 ft, adjacent to the trace of the fault. Dramatic sandstone formations, including outcrops of the resistant Coldwater and Matilija formations, are visible at many locations in the range.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>The predominant ground cover is chaparral, with coastal sage scrub, oak woodland and grasslands at lower elevations. Isolated stands of conifers (mostly Coulter pines) and other evergreen trees such as bay laurel, tanbark oak and madrone grow on the higher parts of the northern slopes, which are cooler and have a somewhat higher annual rainfall than the southern slopes. At lower elevations on the southern side of the range, a virtually frost-free zone, avocados are grown in considerable quantity.</p><br>
<h2>Inhabitants</h2><br>
<p>Early inhabitants included the Chumash people who left behind many examples of rock art including those at Painted Cave SHP. Large portions of the mountain range are now in the Los Padres National Forest, although there are private inholdings, including some substantial communities, such as the Painted Cave community where Jane Fonda owned the ridgetop Laurel Springs Ranch into the late 1990s. Other famous residents have included Ronald Reagan, whose Rancho del Cielo is at the top of the range west of Santa Barbara. The Cold Spring Tavern is a popular local gathering place beneath the Cold Spring Bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of the mountain range is Mediterranean. Summers are warm and almost entirely rainless, save for occasional monsoonal showers in August and September, though in most years there is no rain between May and October. Most of the higher coastal slopes of the range average between 30 in to almost 40 in of precipitation per year (mostly falling between November and March), about twice the total of the coastal plain below. About one year in three snow falls on the higher peaks in the mountains, but it rarely stays for longer than a few days. In the late spring and early summer the mountains and areas below to the south are subject to occasional intense sundowner winds, a type of foehn wind in which the air is heated adiabatically and dried as it moves downslope. In dry years these winds pose an extreme fire hazard.</p><br>
<p>Occasionally extremely destructive fires originate in the Santa Ynez Mountains. In June 1990, a fire which began near Painted Cave burned south into the city of Santa Barbara, driven by sundowner winds, destroying over 500 homes. A fire in the 1940s destroyed most of the mansion that is now called Knapp&#39;s Castle. More recent fires, such as the Tea and Jesusita fires, have also been destructive to properties.</p><br>
<p>Navy Island is a small, uninhabited island in the Niagara River in the province of Ontario, managed by Parks Canada as a National Historic Site of Canada. It is located about 4.5 km upstream from Horseshoe Falls, and has an area of roughly 1.2 km&sup2;. It was designated a national historic site in 1921 in recognition of its role in shipbuilding and the location of the short-lived Republic of Canada. The site is closed to the public, has no visitor facilities, and has not allowed camping since the expiration of a lease with the Niagara Parks Commission.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Navy Island was settled by the Lamoka people in approximately 2000 BC and Meadowood culture peoples in 1000 BC.</p><br>
<p>During the French colonization of New France, Navy Island was known as Île de la Marina. Here the French built four ships that they used to service the Great Lakes. When New France was ceded to the British in 1763, they set up a shipyard here. In the War of 1812, a detachment was stationed on the island.</p><br>
<p>In 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie and about 200 of his supporters captured the island and proclaimed the Republic of Canada there. Initially Mackenzie started with twenty-five men, but the population eventually swelled to over six hundred men. On January 11, 1838, the rebels were forced from the island and retreated across the river into the United States.</p><br>
<p>In 1875, the Queens Hotel was established as a popular summer resort on the island&#39;s south side. It was destroyed by fire in 1910.</p><br>
<p>Farms and orchards were located on the northeast, south, central, northwest and southwest ends of the island. Since abandoned, most of the farmed lands have been re-forested. There are some reminders of habitation on the south side. A pier still exists for boaters to the island. Permit is needed for camping.</p><br>
<p>Navy Island was proposed to be the new World Peace Capital and headquarters of the United Nations by an international committee in 1945 and 1946. The island was considered to be an ideal location as it lay on the boundary between two peaceful countries. An artist&#39;s rendering of the World Peace Capital showed the property with bridges spanning both countries (at Grand Island in the US and the Canadian mainland on the other side). It was proposed that Navy Island would be ceded to the United Nations as long as the headquarters remained, and to revert to the Canadian government should the U.N. move. The proposal was ultimately turned down in favour of the current U.N. headquarters in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Fogo  is the most prominent island of the Sotavento group of Cape Verde: it rises to nearly 3,000 m above sea level at its summit, Pico do Fogo.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The prehistory of the island had a very large eruption around 73,000 years ago that collapsed the eastern side into the ocean and produced a 170 m megatsunami that struck Santiago Island. The mountain elevation was between 3,500 and tall.</p><br>
<p>Fogo was first sighted in 1456 by Vicente Dias along with Alvise Cadamosto and Antoniotto Usodimare, Fogo was fully discovered in 1460 by a Genovese captain António Noli on behalf of Henry the Navigator and the Portuguese Crown, and was first called São Filipe, meaning Saint Philip in Portuguese. It gained its current fiery name before the 1680 eruption, since a madrigal "The Andalusian Merchant" by Thomas Weelkes, who died in 1623, sings "how strangely Fogo burns, amidst an ocean full of flying fishes". It also appeared in an 1598 map titled Insulae Capitis Viridis which is now at the National Library of France.</p><br>
<p>There are now two cities in the island: São Filipe and Mosteiros.</p><br>
<p>The Portuguese settled the island in 1500. Emigration started in 1850, mainly to North America. The 1910 civil revolution in Portugal drew aristocracy and large land-owners back to Portugal and left civilians behind. A small museum on Fogo explains many of these connections.</p><br>
<p>Volcanic eruptions have occurred in 1680, 1769, 1785, 1799, 1847, 1852, 1857, 1951, 1995, and 2014. The first recorded eruption was in 1680 in which was the last time it erupted from the top, it devastated much of the island, many inhabitants fled to the nearby island of Brava, the eruption continued for a few years and would act as a natural lighthouse for ships. The black color of the soil from the previous eruptions are still seen today. The 1769 eruption was the last time it erupted from the top of the peak. The 1995 eruption began on April 2–3 and nearby residents were evacuated, it was preceded by small earthquakes which began six days prior to the first eruption lava, it intensified on April 18 with large, explosive bursts, by morning, the activity returned to lava fountaining. In 2014, another eruption occurred from near the same vent as the last, the population was evacuated again, it was slightly greater and much of Portela would be destroyed and much of Bangaeira had suffered minor damages though the lava went to the area, a part of the road was destroyed.</p><br>
<p>São Filipe became the seat of the municipality of Fogo in 1854 which existed until 1991, before it administered Brava. Its first president was El-Rei Márcio Cardoso, later he was succeeded by his brother El-Rei Carlos Cardoso III (The Strong).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>One of the southernmost islands in Cape Verde, Fogo is located between the islands of Santiago and Brava. Practically the whole island is a stratovolcano that has been periodically active: it last erupted in 2014. The largest volcanic feature is a 9 km caldera, which has walls 1 km high. The caldera has a breach in its eastern rim, and in the centre a resurgent dome with an ash cone that forms the highest point of the island: its summit is about one hundred m higher than the surrounding caldera wall. Lava from the volcano has reached the eastern coast of the island within historical times.</p><br>
<p>Two small villages, Portela and Bangaeira, exist in the floor of the caldera (Chã das Caldeiras); the residents were evacuated during eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s main city is São Filipe, near which is an airport. Fogo is largely an agricultural island. It has fertile land in the south-west with a slope of about ten to fifteen degrees. The north and the east are steeper. The island rises abruptly from the ocean, which can be as deep as 5,300 m at a distance of 5 km from the shoreline. In the south and west parts of the island, there are numerous hills and small mountains that were formed out of different small volcanoes such as Achada Furna, Monte Largo, Monte Grande and Lagariça, tiny small underwater hills that were volcanoes surrounding the islands are rarely founded. The exception is to the west, where the island is connected to another seamount; further west in Brava.</p><br>
<p>The steep slopes in the north-eastern part are green and grassy all year round. The rest of the mountain is dry and barren, its dry creeks and streams are dry washes.</p><br>
<p>São Filipes buildings use classic Portuguese colonial architecture. Mosteiros in the north-east is the islands second most important town.</p><br>
<p>A violent eruption took place in 1680, forming a new cone that was visible over hundreds of kilometres but lasted only for a few years. It was during this eruption that the island earned its name.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>There are various endemic plants on Fogo:</p><br>
<p>Cravo-brabo (Erysimum caboverdiana)</p><br>
<p>Língua-de-vaca (Echium vulcanorum)</p><br>
<p>Losna (Artemisia gorgonum), a medicinal plant with a bitter taste.</p><br>
<p>Tortolho (Euphorbia tuckeyana).</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Being one stratovolcano and extremely mountainous, this island has quite a diverse climate and many various microclimates. Along the coast Fogo has a moderate dry tropical climate according to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system; higher on the slopes (~ 800 m A.S.L.) it has a semiarid mild tropical climate (Köppen–Geiger Bsh_ with very balanced temperatures year round; above 1,000 m it has a cool highland subtropical steppe climate (Köppen–Geiger BskL). The average annual temperature on the coast is about 23 -, decreasing to some 12 - on the highest ground.</p><br>
<p>There can be remarkably cool weather in the interior, with the warmer wet season starting in July and ending in November, with the colder dry season starting in December and ending in May. Drought, the major climate risk of Cape Verdean islands, is much less pronounced on Fogo, due to the mountain&#39;s ability to gain moisture from clouds. During the mid-nineteenth century, Fogo suffered from severe droughts. Death from starvation was common in the population as of 1832.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of 1832, Fogo had an estimated human population of 10,000. The official language of Fogo is Portuguese; yet mostly Fogo Creole is spoken. According to the 2013 national demographic census, Fogo was the fourth most populous island in the Cape Verde archipelago.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The economy of the island is based on agriculture and fishing, with coffee and wine among the main products. In the 1830s, Fogos wine was described as being "very superior." Due to its volcanic soil Fogos coffee also has a good reputation. The island has experienced a substantial diaspora. Many households live off remittances from emigrants in the USA and in European countries (Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Italy). Fogo fosters strong connections to Rhode Island and to Massachusetts (USA), where many people with Cape Verdean origin live.</p><br>
<p>Tourism is steadily becoming popular. The volcano (allowed only accompanied by a local guide) is the island&#39;s major attraction but many visitors also come to see relatives. The historic city of São Filipe and Chã das Caldeiras in the volcanic crater receive the bulk of visitors. No great tourism facilities exist, but there are small hotels and bed-and-breakfasts and local guides offer hiking tours (e.g. with some proposed hiking tours and impressions).</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>The island is divided in three municipalities, which are subdivided into civil parishes:</p><br>
<p>Mosteiros</p><br>
<p>Nossa Senhora da Ajuda</p><br>
<p>Santa Catarina do Fogo</p><br>
<p>Santa Catarina do Fogo</p><br>
<p>São Filipe</p><br>
<p>Nossa Senhora da Conceição</p><br>
<p>São Lourenço</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The most notable route on the island is the Fogo Circular Road (Rodovía Circular do Fogo) which is EN1-FG01 and passes through the island capital, Cova Figueira, Mosteiros and Ribeira do Ilhéu and the road linking the capital and the island&#39;s port (EN2-FG01). Lesser roads include the road (EN3-FG01) linking Ponta Verde, Lomba, Achada Furna and Cova Figueira running up to 1,100 above sea level, the road connecting Fonte Aleixo, Achada Furna and Chã das Caldeiras (EN3-FG05), the northernmost terminus almost entirely affected by the 2014-15 eruption and the São Filipe-São Lourenço Lomba route (EN3-FG02).</p><br>
<p>Fogo has the southwest of the countrys only airport (São Filipe Airport) in the island capital which also serves Brava (with the exception of from 1992 to 2004), it serves just three other islands, Santiago São Vicente and Boa Vista. Fogo once had another airfield northwest of Mosteiros but has been closed. It also has its main port located at Porto de Vale Cavaleiros (Knights Valley) just 4 km northwest of the island capital. It was renovated and expanded in 2000 and has a depth of 5 metres. The port handles the island&#39;s ferry services and serves the nearby islands of Brava and Fogo, from Santiago, it also accesses other parts of Cape Verde, the Praia-Fogo-Brava ferry route runs every day of the year. Since 2011, the Kriola ferry is the only few boats serving Brava and primarily serves with that island than with Santiago-Brava.</p><br>
<p>Fogo has many yasis running the routes between São Filipe and Mosteiros, São Filipe and Chã das Calderas, however unlike many other islands, these buses all depart at roughly the same time every day, and despite the presence of multiple vehicles running each route, passengers can find themselves stranded if they do not board a vehicle during the limited departure window. Yasis tend to depart Mosteiros headed to São Filipe around 6am, and tend to Depart São Filipe headed to Chã around noon.</p><br>
<h2>Sporting teams</h2><br>
<p>ABC de Patim</p><br>
<p>Académica</p><br>
<p>Achda Fluminense</p><br>
<p>BeiraMar</p><br>
<p>Botafogo, São Filipe</p><br>
<p>Cutelinho FC</p><br>
<p>Desportivo de Cova Figueira</p><br>
<p>Juventude</p><br>
<p>Lapinha FC</p><br>
<p>Luz Verde</p><br>
<p>Nó Pintcha dos Mosteiros</p><br>
<p>Spartak</p><br>
<p>União de São Lourenço</p><br>
<p>Vulcânicos, São Filipe</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Maria Veiga Amado, supercentennarian</p><br>
<p>Pedro Cardoso, poet</p><br>
<p>Zé Luís, footballer</p><br>
<p>Count of Montrond, viticulturalist, one of the two founders of the settlement of Chã das Caldeiras</p><br>
<p>Pedro Pires, first Prime Minister and 3rd President of Cape Verde</p><br>
<p>Henrique Teixeira de Sousa, writer</p><br>
<p>Carlos de Vasconcelos, politician and journalist</p><br>
<p>Brava  is an island in Cape Verde. It is the smallest inhabited island, but at the same time the greenest, of Cape Verde, in the Sotavento group. First settled in the 1540s, its population grew after Mount Fogo on neighbouring Fogo erupted in 1675. For more than a century, its main industry was whaling, but the island economy is now primarily agricultural.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Brava was "discovered" in 1462 by Portuguese sailors. The Portuguese founded a settlement here in 1573 by sailors from the Azores and Madeira (some sources dated 1620). Sir Francis Drake visited the island in 1579.</p><br>
<p>In 1680, most inhabitants fled from the nearby larger island of Fogo after its volcano erupted and lava began to flow and devastate most of the east of that island, they added a small part to the population of the island. In the 17th and the 18th centuries, pirates raided the bays of the island. Piracy continued until the 19th century, when whaling was common from the ships of Europe and North America.</p><br>
<p>Emigration began as US whaleships carried people from Brava to the northeastern part of North America, especially along the Eastern Seaboard. Most of the immigrants from Brava settled in Boston and New Bedford, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island, where there were numerous Cape Verde and Portuguese immigrants. In the 19th century, many of the men continued to work in whaling. An American consulate was opened in 1843, in the late 1970s, it became the US Embassy in Cape Verde and was moved to the capital city of Praia where it is today.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Its length is more than 11 km extending north to south at its extremities and its width is over 9 km from the eastern extremity to Esperadinha. Its shoreline is between 30 and 40 km making it second to Santa Luzia.</p><br>
<p>Practically the whole island is a stratovolcano. It lies in the lee of the enormous Fogo volcano. Volcanic activity on the island has been mainly located along three lines, which all intersect at the crest of ground that forms the highest part of the island. Brava has no documented historical eruptions, but its youthful volcanic morphology and the fact that earthquake swarms still occur indicate the potential for future eruptions, its last eruption was during the Holocene era.</p><br>
<p>North of Brava are two small islands with four uninhabited islets; three of them are west of Ilhéu de Cima, the islands are Ilhéu Grande, Brava is being one of five main islands that have a surrounding islet or two.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s main town is Vila Nova Sintra. The island has elementary and secondary schools, churches, and a square (praça) in honour of the musician Eugénio Tavares.</p><br>
<p>Key inhabited places include the village of Vila Nova Sintra.All of the five main villages lie north of the mountaintop, which has four main roads including Furna - Vila Nova Sintra and Fajã de Agua and south to Nossa Senhora do Monte and slightly south of the mountaintop, some of them are by the shore. The mountain valleys dominate the south, the east and the west. The north has a few valleys. Monte Fontainhas is the highest point on the highland elevating 978 metres.</p><br>
<p>The village of Furna has a commercial port, the other is Fajã de Agua which is only used for fishing.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation arrives from the trade wind clouds. The island is covered with a leeward cloud so that evaporation is reduced and the vegetation is more abundant.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Being highly mountainous this island has quite diverse climate. Brava island has moderate tropical climate (As according to Köppen–Geiger climate classification system) along the coast and semi-arid mild tropical climate Bsh with very balanced temperatures year round in the interior. The average annual temperature on the coast is about 23 -, decreasing to some 17 - in the mountains. There can be remarkably cool weather with warmer wet season starting in June and ending in November with colder dry season starting in December and ending in May.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>As of 1832, the population was estimated at 8,000.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The main economy of the island is agricultural, related to irrigation and fishing (the island&#39;s main production). Main agricultural goods include coffee, potatoes including sweet potatoes, corn (maize), banana and sugar cane. Trading and private households depend on income from Cape Verdean residents from North America. Brava never had a lot of tourism. Tourism has slowly increased. The island is unsuitable for beach tourism because the steep shoreline allows few beaches.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions and amenities</h2><br>
<p>Nova Sintra, a town with a museum, traditional Portuguese architecture, several churches and shops.</p><br>
<p>Fajã de Agua, a small harbour on the West coast with a natural swimming pool.</p><br>
<p>Nossa Senhora do Monte, a village in the mountains with a pilgrimage church.</p><br>
<p>Cova Rodela, a village in the mountains with a dragon tree in its main street.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Brava has two seats, in the 2011 election, it had a PAICV and a MpD seat. In the 2016 elections, 40% of the seat was won by the MpD.</p><br>
<h2>Sporting teams</h2><br>
<p>Académica</p><br>
<p>Benfica</p><br>
<p>Corôa</p><br>
<p>Juventude da Furna - the newest club on the island</p><br>
<p>Morabeza</p><br>
<p>No Pintcha</p><br>
<p>Sporting</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>The airport, inaugurated in 1992, was closed because of the strong winds. The airline service ended in 2004.</p><br>
<p>Until recently, there was a daily ferry (an ex-fishing boat) connecting Brava and Fogo. Since January 2011, Brava can be reached from Praia (and Fogo) almost exclusively via the passenger/cargo ferry, the Kriola. The Kriola is the first of &#39;s fleet of inter-island catamarans and connects the Sotavento islands of Santiago, Fogo, and Brava. The Kriola typically leaves Furna, its home port, at 7:30 AM on days of operation and returns between 9:30 and 11 PM, depending on the day. The route is typically BRAVA-FOGO-SANTIAGO-FOGO-BRAVA; at least one day a week it makes a BRAVA-FOGO-BRAVA run. Travel time between Brava and Fogo is approximately 0:40 and approximately 3:30 between Fogo and Santiago (Praia).</p><br>
<p>The main harbour of Brava is Furna, on the east coast of the island. Buses and taxis are common, especially when the Kriola arrives in port.</p><br>
<p>On Brava the villages may be reached by "Aluguer" bus. There is no fixed schedule, as the aluguers travel only when there are sufficient passengers. A few taxis are available as well.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Eugénio Tavares, musician; he used the traditional morna and wrote in Cape Verdean Creole. A statue dedicated to Eugénio Tavares is in the main square of Vila Nova Sintra, surrounded by a garden with trees, sunflowers, flowers, grass and other types of plants.</p><br>
<p>Hermano da Pina and Armando da Pina live on the Eastern Seaboard of the United States; their parents emigrated there from Brava.</p><br>
<p>Sandra Orlando (née Fernandez das Neves).</p><br>
<p>Vinny deMacedo - Massachusetts State Representative & State Senate candidate was born in Brava.</p><br>
<p>Tjörn is the sixth largest island in Sweden, located on the Swedish West coast in the province of Bohuslän.</p><br>
<h2>Facts</h2><br>
<p>Area (island): 147 km</p><br>
<p>Area (municipality): 168 km</p><br>
<p>Population: 15,774 (2017)</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Tjörn is connected in the east to the town of Stenungsund on the mainland by the Tjörn bridge, and to the island of Orust in the north by the</p><br>
<p>Skåpesund bridge. The largest town is Skärhamn, and it is also the municipal capital. Other communities, many of which are fishing</p><br>
<p>communities, include Rönnäng, Klädesholmen, and Kyrkesund. The peninsula of Mjörn has beautiful scenery, and large shell banks.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>During the summer, the population swells from 15,000 to 45,000 as vacationers arrive for yachting and swimming. Skärhamn has an ample guest harbor to accommodate yachters travelling along the Swedish west coast.</p><br>
<p>Orust is an island in western Sweden, and Swedens third largest island. In 2014 Statistics Sweden declared it to instead be the fourth largest island, under a definition which adds artificial canals to the possible bodies of water surrounding an island. It has been noted that under this definition, all of Götaland would be the countrys largest island, rendering Orust instead the fifth largest. The largest town on Orust is Henån, where approximately 1,800 inhabitants live. Orust is home to approximately 15,160 inhabitants in the winter and many more in the summer.</p><br>
<p>The main industry on Orust is the shipyards, the two largest being Najadvarvet and Hallberg-Rassy.</p><br>
<p>The largest town is Henån, and it is also the municipal capital. Other communities, many of which are fishing communities, include Ellös, Hälleviksstrand, Mollösund, Morlanda, Stocken, Svanesund, Svanvik and Varekil,</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Orust is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Aalborg, Denmark</p><br>
<p>Mizen Head , is located at the extremity of the Kilmore Peninsula in the district of Carbery in County Cork, in southwest Ireland. It is one of the extreme points of the island of Ireland and is a major tourist attraction, noted for its dramatic cliff scenery. One of the main transatlantic shipping routes passes close by to the south, and Mizen Head was, for many seafarers, the first  sight of Europe. The tip of the peninsula is almost an island, cut off by a deep chasm, now spanned by a bridge; this gives access to an old signal station, a weather station, and a lighthouse. The signal station, once permanently manned, is now a museum housing displays relating to the site&#39;s strategic significance for transatlantic shipping and communications, including the pioneering efforts of Guglielmo Marconi. The "99 steps" which formed part of the original access route have been supplemented by a series of paths and viewing platforms, and a full range of visitor facilities is available at the entrance to the site. The villages of Ballydehob, Crookhaven, Goleen, and Schull are located on the peninsula to the east.</p><br>
<p>Mizen Head is not the most southerly point on the mainland of Ireland; nearby Brow Head holds that title, as several metres south. Nevertheless, geography books have long measured the length of Ireland, diagonal northeast-to-southwest, as "from Fair Head to Mizen Head" or north-south "from Malin Head to Mizen Head.</p><br>
<p>Fort Tryon Park is a public park located in the Hudson Heights and Inwood neighborhoods of the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The 67 acre park is situated on a ridge in Upper Manhattan, with a commanding view of the Hudson River, the George Washington Bridge, the New Jersey Palisades, Washington Heights, Inwood, The Bronx and the Harlem River. It extends from Margaret Corbin Circle in the south to Riverside Drive at Dyckman Street in the north, and from Broadway in the east to the Henry Hudson Parkway in the west. The main entrance to the park is at Margaret Corbin Circle, at the intersection of Fort Washington Avenue and Cabrini Boulevard.</p><br>
<p>The area was known by the name Chquaesgeck by the local Lenape tribe, and was called Lange Bergh (Long Hill) by Dutch settlers until late in the 17th century. It was the location where the Battle of Fort Washington was fought in the American Revolutionary War, but it was, and remained, sparsely populated. By the turn of the 20th century, it was the location of large country estates.</p><br>
<p>The park was the creation of philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who bought up several of the estates beginning in 1917 in order to create it. He engaged the Olmsted Brothers firm – formed by the sons of Frederick Law Olmsted, step-brothers John Charles Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. – to design the park, and gave it to the city in 1931; The park was completed in 1935.</p><br>
<p>Rockefeller also bought sculptor George Gray Barnard&#39;s collection of medieval art and gave to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which from 1934 to 1939 built The Cloisters in Fort Tryon Park to house it. The Cloisters, which was designed by Charles Collens, incorporates several medieval buildings that were purchased in Europe, brought to the United States, and reassembled, often stone by stone. It is home to the Unicorn Tapestries.</p><br>
<p>The park is built on a formation of Manhattan schist and contains interesting examples of igneous intrusions and of glacial striations from the last Ice Age. The lower lying regions to the east and north of the park are built on Inwood marble. The northern boundary of the park is formed by the Dyckman Street Fault.</p><br>
<p>Fort Tryon Park was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 and was designated a New York City Scenic Landmark in 1983.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The park was an ancillary site of the American Revolutionary War Battle of Fort Washington, fought on November 16, 1776, between 2,900 American soldiers and 8,000 invading Hessian troops hired by Great Britain. Margaret Corbin became the first woman to fight in the war and was wounded during the battle. Subsequently, the southern entrance to the park bears her name. The actual site of Fort Washington is less than a mile south at Bennett Park. After the British victory, the outpost was named after Sir William Tryon, the last British Governor of the Province of New York.</p><br>
<p>As New York City expanded and prospered, the area &ndash; which was located on a high ridge that the Lenapes called Chquaesgeck and the Dutch "Long Hill" &ndash; was part of a country estate whose wealthy owners, included Dr. Samuel Watkins, founder of Watkins Glen, General Daniel Butterfield, Boss Tweed and C.K.G. Billings. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. purchased the Billings estate in 1917 – for $35,000 an acre</p><br>
<p>Fort Tryon Park was constructed during the Great Depression, providing many jobs. The project included the 190th Street subway station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line (todays ), which is the closest New York City Subway station to the parks main (southern) entrance; the Dyckman Street station on the same line is closest to the northern end. The park was completed in 1935 providing open green space to Upper Manhattan. The parks design included extensive plantings of various flora in the parks many gardens, including a Heather Garden, which was restored in the 1980s; the park&#39;s plantings were designed by James W. Dawson. Besides the gardens and the Cloisters, the park has extensive walking paths and meadows, with views of the Hudson and Harlem Rivers.</p><br>
<p>Remnants of the C.K.G. Billings estate are the Fort Tryon Cottage – located near the main entrance at Margaret Corbin Circle, at the intersection of Cabrini Boulevard and Fort Washington Avenue – which was originally a gatehouse, and the partially paved-over red-brick pathways near the entrance and continuing down through the massively arched structure known as the Billings Arcade. This was originally a driveway, which continues down to Riverside Drive, which is now the northbound side of the Henry Hudson Parkway. The Billings Arcade features a series of 50-foot tall arches constructed of Maine granite.</p><br>
<p>During the years before World War I, the park lent its name to the neighborhood to its south. The area between Broadway and the Hudson River, as far south as West 179th Street, was known as Fort Tryon. By the 1940s the neighborhood was known as Frankfurt-on-the-Hudson, which gave way, in the 1990s, to Hudson Heights.</p><br>
<p>The parks concessions building, which had fallen into disrepair, was restored beginning in 1995 by Bette Midlers New York Restoration Project (NYRP). The non-profit organization was awarded the operation of the concession in 2000, and opened the New Leaf Café – later called the New Leaf Restaurant and Bar – the next year. The Parks Department closed the building for necessary roof repairs in December 2014, and NYRP announced that it would not reopen, due to the length of time the repairs would take and the increased rent it would be charged. The operation of the restaurant was taken over in late April 2015 by Coffeed, a Queens-based which donates a portion of its revenue to local charities.</p><br>
<p>On June 15, 2010 the park celebrated its 75th anniversary with a fundraiser and fireworks display.</p><br>
<h2>The Cloisters</h2><br>
<p>The Cloisters is a branch of the Metropolitan Museum of Art which houses the museums extensive collection of medieval European art and artifacts, including the noted Unicorn Tapestries. The museums buildings are a combination of medieval structures bought in Europe and reconstructed on-site stone-by-stone, and new buildings in the medieval style designed by Charles Collens. The museum owes its existence to philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who purchased the medieval art collection of George Grey Barnard, and gave it to the Met along with his own collection. The Met then had the Cloisters built in Rockefeller&#39;s newly created Fort Tryon Park with endowment money from Rockefeller.</p><br>
<p>Together, the park and the Cloisters are listed as an historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The Cloisters had been designated a New York City landmark in 1974, with Fort Tryon Park designed a scenic landmark in 1983.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Tryon Park Trust</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Tryon Park Trust is a non-profit organization the mission of which is to promote the restoration, preservation, and enhancement of the park for the benefit and use of the surrounding community and all New Yorkers, through advocacy and fundraising, working in partnership with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation and other organizations.</p><br>
<p>As the City of New York suffered severe budget constraints in the 1970s and funds for parks were decimated, Fort Tryon Park&#39;s gardens, woodlands, and playgrounds fell into disuse and disrepair. The Park’s decline continued until the 1980s when funds became available and restoration efforts began.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Fort Tryon Park was designated an official New York City scenic landmark, and a plan was developed the following year to fully renovate the park. The park’s Heather Garden was one of the first projects slated for a much needed renovation. It is the largest public garden with unrestricted access in New York City. Thanks to the partnership between the Parks Department, the Greenacre Foundation, and volunteers, a three–year restoration of the garden was undertaken, reopening long–lost views of the Hudson and the Palisades in 1988. Since 1998, the Fort Tryon Park Trust has been working to build upon the Parks Department and the Greenacre Foundation’s initial restoration work, raising an endowment of close to $3 million to help preserve capital improvements made to date and to continue the revitalization throughout the park’s entire 67 acres.</p><br>
<p>The Trust helps fund programs for all ages like yoga and tai chi classes, live outdoor concerts and bird walks. The Trust also supports the display of local artist in the park courtesy of the New York City Parks Temporary Public Art Program.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>1948 – In the film Portrait of Jennie, starring Joseph Cotten, Jennifer Jones and Ethel Barrymore, the Cloisters in Fort Tryon Park was used as the location for a convent school.</p><br>
<p>1968 – Two scenes in Coogan&#39;s Bluff, starring Clint Eastwood, were filmed in Fort Tryon Park, including a shoot-out at the Cloisters and a motorcycle chase in the Heather Garden.</p><br>
<p>2011 – Scenes from the film The Adjustment Bureau, starring Matt Damon and Emily Blunt, were filmed in Fort Tryon Park.</p><br>
<p>The San Rafael Mountains are a mountain range in central Santa Barbara County, California, USA, separating the drainages of the Santa Ynez River and the Santa Maria River. They are part of the Transverse Ranges system of Southern California which in turn are part of the Pacific Coast Ranges system of western North America.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Most of the mountain range is within the Los Padres National Forest, and the northern slopes are included in the remote San Rafael Wilderness area.</p><br>
<p>The highest peaks include Big Pine Mountain (6,820 ft, 2,079 m), San Rafael Mountain (6,593 ft, 2,010 m) and McKinley Mountain (6,220 ft, 1,896 m), none of which are easily accessible except by foot or horse. The highest peak at the southern edge of the range is Little Pine Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Hurricane Deck is a spectacular block of sandstone that can be found deep in the San Rafael Wilderness.</p><br>
<p>The Sisquoc River headwaters are on the north slopes of Big Pine Mountain. It is a designated Wild and Scenic River of the United States, and a tributary of the Santa Maria River. Sisquoc Falls, 250 ft high, is located on a tributary of the Sisquoc RIver to the west of Big Pine Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Climate is moderate, with hot dry summers (rare thunderstorms) and cool to cold wet winters. Snow sometimes falls on the higher slopes between December and March during frontal passages. Annual precipitation totals are between 15 and 25 inches.</p><br>
<h3>Peaks</h3><br>
<p>The six highest peaks of the San Rafael Mountains with more than 500 ft of prominence, listed by height:</p><br>
<p>Big Pine Mountain, 6,820 ft</p><br>
<p>San Rafael Mountain, 6,593 ft</p><br>
<p>Madulce Peak, 6,539 ft</p><br>
<p>Monte Arido, 6,013 ft</p><br>
<p>Ortega Peak, 5,857 ft</p><br>
<p>Figueroa Mountain 4,534 ft</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains mainly consist of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, of Jurassic age or younger, though there are a few regions of igneous intrusions. Several prominent faults exist, including the Big Pine Fault, which trends eastward towards the San Andreas Fault about forty miles away.</p><br>
<h2>Habitats</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are steep and rugged, and lower slopes are covered with almost impenetrable chaparral, except where it has been burned, an event which occurs naturally in fire ecology every ten or twenty years. Decades of fire suppression, however, have resulted in some areas of brush which have not burned within the last century. The Forest Service occasionally conducts controlled burns to remove areas of high fire hazard and restore ecological balance of the habitat. In the more shaded and moist canyons and northern slopes oak woodlands and Gray pines (Pinus sabiniana ) are found.</p><br>
<p>Above the montane chaparral and woodlands ecosystem zone are stands of conifers of the mixed evergreen forest ecosystem. Snow is common in the winter on the summits, above about 6,000 feet (1,800 m), though overall the climate of the mountain range is Mediterranean, with mild rainy winters and warm, dry summers.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>The earliest known residents of the San Rafael Mountains were the Chumash Indians, and evidence of their habitation can still be found by intrepid hikers in the form of pictograph rock paintings in remote areas.</p><br>
<p>In historic times, mercury mining was conducted on portions of the southern slopes. Tailings from these old mines sometimes contain high levels of mercury, and recent environmental investigations have been conducted to determine if cleanup is necessary and feasible.</p><br>
<p>The central part of the mountains is included into Santa Ynez Recreation area, a part of Los Padres National Forest, and is a popular hiking destination, with a dozen of campgrounds.</p><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue is the largest cast iron statue in the world, and is the city symbol of Birmingham, Alabama, reflecting its roots in the iron and steel industry. The 56 ft tall statue depicts the Roman god Vulcan, god of the fire and forge. It was created as Birminghams entry for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition  in St. Louis, Missouri. The statue is the worlds largest iron-ore statue, and among the nations tallest.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Commissioned by the Commercial Club of Birmingham, Italian-born sculptor Giuseppe Moretti began designing the monumental figure in 1903, using a 6 ft tall model to study the form. He next sculpted a clay master model in an unfinished church in Passaic, New Jersey, and this was then divided into sections and transported by railroad to the Birmingham Steel and Iron Company for the preparation of casting molds for the iron.</p><br>
<p>The sculptor, Giuseppe Moretti received an artists fee of $6,000, which would be about $90,000 in todays currency. The Commercial Club of Birmingham held art shows, concerts, baseball games, and many more activities to raise the estimated $15,000 ($225,000 in todays currency) it would cost to build and transport the statue. It is also noted that pot metal statuettes of the Vulcan were sold at both the St. Louis Worlds Fair and in Birmingham, Alabama for two dollars apiece to help in the accumulated costs it took to create the Vulcan.</p><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue consists of 29 cast-iron components with connecting flanges that are bolted together internally. The heaviest section is his whole head, which weighs 11,000 lb. Iron forgemen designed and executed the connection details for the statue, which originally had no internal framework and was self-supporting. The grey iron castings were made in Birmingham entirely from locally produced iron.</p><br>
<p>The completed weight of the god Vulcans figure alone is 100,000 lb. When Vulcans anvil, block, hammer, and spearpoint are added, the statue weighs a total of 120,000 lb and it stands on a pedestal that is 123 ft. The statue has a chest circumference of 22 ft and a waist circumference of 18 ft.</p><br>
<h3>1904 World's Fair</h3><br>
<p>The statue was shipped to St. Louis as Birminghams entry into the 1904 Worlds Fair. Vulcan dramatically demonstrated the mineral riches and manufacturing capabilities of the Birmingham area while on display in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition&#39;s "Palace of Mines and Metallurgy". It was awarded a "Grand Prize".</p><br>
<p>When the 1904 World&#39;s Fair ended, the Vulcan statue was dismantled and returned to its home city of Birmingham, only to be left in pieces alongside the railroad tracks due to unpaid freight bills.</p><br>
<h3>Alabama State Fairgrounds</h3><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue was eventually re-erected at the Alabama State Fairgrounds, but the statue&#39;s arms were installed incorrectly, and the god was without his spear, which had been lost on the way from St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>With nothing to hold in its hands, Vulcan soon became an advertising figure. Over the years, Vulcan held an ice cream cone, a Coca-Cola bottle, and even Heinz pickles. In the late 1920s, the statue was disassembled for inspection. During this time, children would often play around the disassembled statue. It was painted a flesh color and was reassembled in the early 1930s.</p><br>
<h3>On Red Mountain</h3><br>
<p>It was not until 1936 that the statue found a suitable home, thanks to the Works Progress Administration, which partially funded a new park in the city at the top of Red Mountain. A 126 ft pedestal was built of local sandstone, and Vulcan was hoisted into place. A new spear was fabricated to be held high in his right hand while his left hand held a hammer at his side. Vulcan was repainted in an aluminum like finish. The statue&#39;s naked buttocks has been a source of humor for many years. A novelty song, "Moon Over Homewood," refers to the fact that the statue "moons" the neighboring suburb of Homewood, Alabama.</p><br>
<p>A nine-day festival commenced on May 7, 1939 to dedicate Vulcan Park. Evelyn Tully was crowned the Vulcan Queen. Guests of honor included the foundrymen who originally cast Vulcan. A crowd of 5,000 was present for the opening night of the festival.</p><br>
<p>In 1938 a challenge was sent out to hundreds of engineers and architects throughout the Southeast to design the base and park area. There were hundreds of submissions but a little known draftsman by the name of Carl Franklin Edins from Birmingham, Alabama was unanimously declared the winner.</p><br>
<p>To take full advantage of Vulcans position overlooking Birmingham, the city&#39;s Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1946 made the statue into a symbol for road safety. His spear was replaced by a neon torch that glowed green, except during the 24 hours following a fatal traffic accident, when it glowed red. The spear was restored after the 1999–2004 restoration.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, Vulcan got new neighbors, when two television stations, WAFM-TV (now WVTM) and WBRC located their studios and towers on Red Mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Centennial facelift</h3><br>
<p>To celebrate Birmingham&#39;s centennial, the area around the statue was given a $1 million facelift in 1971. The original tower was clad in Alabama marble with an elevator and observation deck added. A covered walkway also connected a gift shop and snack bar. Vulcan was repainted a rust red a few years later. Vulcan was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 6, 1976.</p><br>
<p>Unfortunately, the statue itself had, when originally placed atop the pedestal, been filled up to the chest with concrete and had begun to deteriorate seriously due to different expansion and contraction rates of concrete versus cast iron. By 1990, an engineering study found that the statue was in danger of collapse.</p><br>
<h3>1999–2004 restoration</h3><br>
<p>Vulcan was removed during October and November 1999 in preparations for a $14 million renovation process that saw the park and pedestal restored to its original 1938 appearance. The statue sat in Vulcan Park&#39;s parking lot until the fall of 2001, when it was shipped to to be repaired. The statue itself was thoroughly inspected and repaired, with some parts, including the lost spear point, re-cast. The new and restored pieces were thoroughly coated with a durable paint system, including a light-gray finish coat dubbed "Vulcan Gray" by the specifier.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, in 2002, the 1971 park additions were demolished, and scaffolding went up around Vulcans tower. Workmen cleaned and repaired the original tower. Vulcans head and right arm went on display at the Birmingham Museum of Art while the tower was prepared.</p><br>
<p>Vulcan was re-erected on a steel armature atop his tower during June 2003, restored to its original appearance as intended by Moretti, reoriented to the east. Television stations WVTM and WBRC both provided live webcams of the reinstallation.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the statue was reinstalled, the scaffolding came down, and a new observation deck, providing panoramic views of the area, was installed. The museum at the base was rebuilt and a new elevator was installed, but oriented so it would not be easily seen from downtown Birmingham. The original waterfalls were not rebuilt, though the stone walkways leading from the parking lot directly to Vulcans tower were restored. The statue and park were officially reopened in 2004, celebrating Vulcans 100th birthday. In 2004, Vulcan Park welcomed more than 100,000 visitors who enjoyed the statues spectacular view of downtown Birmingham.</p><br>
<p>The restoration project received a National Preservation Honor Award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Vulcan Park and Museum</h2><br>
<p>Vulcan Park and Museum (VPM) features views of Birmingham, an interactive history museum that examines Vulcan and Birmingham&#39;s story, and a 10-acre (4 ha) urban green space. In May 2007, Vulcan Park and Museum was designated an official Birmingham Information Center by the Greater Birmingham Convention and Visitors Bureau and offers information on transportation services, restaurants, events and other cultural offerings in Birmingham.</p><br>
<p>Vulcan Park and Museum is operated by Vulcan Park Foundation, a non-profit organization with a mission to preserve and promote Vulcan as the symbol for the Birmingham region, to advance knowledge and understanding of Birmingham&#39;s history and culture, and to encourage exploration of the region.</p><br>
<p>Currently showcasing in the Linn-Henley Gallery is the exhibition "Southern Thunder: The Legacy of Alabama Auto Racing," which showcases helmets, an Auburn University-sponsored race car, and many stories that demonstrate the impact that auto racing has had on Alabama. This exhibit debuted on June 1, 2017.</p><br>
<p>The Shawangunk Ridge, also known as the Shawangunk Mountains or The Gunks, is a ridge of bedrock in Ulster County, Sullivan County and Orange County in the state of New York, extending from the northernmost point of New Jersey to the Catskill Mountains. Shawangunk Ridge is the continuation of the long, easternmost ridge of the Appalachian Mountains; the ridge is known as Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey, and as Blue Mountain as it continues through Pennsylvania. This ridge constitutes the western border of the Great Appalachian Valley.</p><br>
<p>The ridgetop, which widens considerably at its northern end, has many public and private protected areas and is not heavily populated. Its only settlement of consequence is unincorporated Cragsmoor. In the past, the ridge was chiefly noted for mining and logging and a boom-era of huckleberry picking. Fires were regularly set to burn away the undergrowth and stimulate new growth of huckleberry bushes.</p><br>
<p>Today the ridge has become known for its outdoor recreation, most notably as one of the major rock climbing areas of North America. Also known for its biodiversity and scenic character, the ridge has been designated by The Nature Conservancy as a significant area for its conservation programs.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The English name, Shawangunk, derives from the Dutch Scha-wan-gunk, the closest European transcription from the colonial deed record of the Munsee Lenape, Schawankunk (German orthography).</p><br>
<p>Lenape linguist Raymond Whritenour reports that schawan is an inanimate intransitive verb meaning "it is smoky air" or "there is smoky air". Its noun-like participle is schawank, meaning "that which is smoky air". Adding the locative suffix gives us schawangunk "in the smoky air".</p><br>
<p>Whritenour has suggested that the name derives from the burning of a Munsee fort by the Dutch at the eastern base of the ridge in 1663 (a massacre ending the Second Esopus War). Use of the name spread quickly, and it was recorded in numerous land deeds and patents after the war. Historian Marc B. Fried writes:</p><br>
<p>"It is conceivable that this was...the Indians own proper name for their village and that the name was appropriated for use in subsequent land dealings because of the proximity of the...tracts to the former Indian village....The second possibility is that the name simply came into existence in connection with the Bruyn, as a phrase invented by the Indians to describe some feature of the landscape."Fried also notes that the names swift spread in the deed record suggests it was in use as a proper name before the Bruyn purchase. Shawangunk appears nowhere in reference to the fort in the extensive, translated Dutch record of the Second Esopus War. Shawangunk became associated with the ridge during the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>The Lenape&#39; pronunciation is difficult for the European tongue. The word is tri-syllabic Sha-wan-gun, although in an occasional 18 century deed it is written with a fourth syllable. The correct pronunciation approximates sha (short a) - wan (as in want) - goon (as in book). The trailing k is sub vocal and modifies the sound of the m.</p><br>
<p>European colonists began to truncate Shawangunk into "Shongum" . Shongum was mistakenly identified as the Munsee pronunciation by the Reverend Charles Scott writing on Shawangunk&#39;s etymology for the Ulster County Historical Society in 1861. The error has been reinforced in ethnographic sources and ridge literature, and by historians, librarians, and ridge educators for more than 140 years.</p><br>
<p>Both "Shawangunk" and "Shongum" are popular usages among locals native to the region. The "Gunks" is also a widely used familiar term for the ridge and has been in use at least since the mid-19th century. In a letter dated August and postmarked August 8, 1838, Hudson River School painter Thomas Cole corresponding with painter A.B. Durand writes, "Do let me hear from you when you get among the Gunks. I hope you will find every thing there your heart can wish." The Shawangunks, particularly around Lake Mohonk, were the subject for several Hudson River School painters.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Shawangunk Ridge is the northern end of a long ridge within the Appalachian Mountains that begins in Virginia, where it is called North Mountain, continues through Pennsylvania as Blue Mountain, becomes known as the Kittatinny Mountains after it crosses the Delaware Water Gap into New Jersey and becomes the Shawangunks at the New York state line. These mountains mark the western and northern edge of the Great Appalachian Valley.</p><br>
<p>The ridge is widest (7.5 miles/12 kilometers) near the northern end and narrow in the middle (1.25 miles/under 2 kilometers), with a maximum elevation of 2,289 ft near Lake Maratanza. The ridge rises above a broad, high plain which stretches to the Hudson River to the east. On the west the low foothills of the Appalachian Mountains mingle with a low flat made by the Rondout Creek and Sandburgh Creek, the Basha Kill and various small kills, as well as the Neversink River and Delaware River at the southern end. These adjacent valleys are underlain by relatively weak sedimentary rock (e.g., sandstone, shale, limestone).</p><br>
<h2>Natural environment</h2><br>
<p>There is an unusual diversity of vegetation on the ridge, containing species typically found north of this region alongside species typically found to the south or restricted to the Coastal Plain. The results is an area where many regionally rare plants are found at or near the limits of their ranges. Other rare species found in the area are those adapted to the harsh conditions on the ridge. Upland communities include chestnut oak and mixed-oak forest, pine barrens including dwarf pine ridges, hemlock-northern hardwood forest, and cliff and talus slope and cave communities. Wetlands include small lakes and streams, bogs, pitch pine-blueberry peat swamps, an inland Atlantic white cypress swamp, red maple swamps, acidic seeps, calcareous seeps, and a few emergent marshes.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The ridge is primarily Shawangunk Conglomerate, a hard, silica-cemented conglomerate of white quartz pebbles and sandstone that directly overlies the Martinsburg Shale, a thick turbidite sequence of dark gray shale and greywacke sandstone. The Martinsburg Shale was deposited in a deep ocean during the Ordovician (470 million years ago). The Shawangunk Conglomerate was deposited over the Martinsburg Shale in thick braided rivers during the Silurian (about 420 million years ago); both sequences of sedimentary rock were subsequently deformed and uplifted during the Permian (about 270 million years ago). As a result of this deformation, strata within the ridge are involved in a northward plunging series of asymmetric folds (e.g., anticlines and synclines) that dip gently towards the west. These same folds, involving strata that overlie the Shawangunk Conglomerate, are exposed north of Shawangunk Ridge in the Rosendale natural cement region, where they can be directly examined in abandoned cement mines. Strata along the eastern margin of Shawangunk Ridge are truncated by erosion, resulting in the prominent cliffs characteristic of Shawangunk Ridge. The Shawangunk Conglomerate is very hard and resistant to weathering; whereas the underlying shale erodes relatively easily. Thus, the quartz conglomerate forms cliffs and talus slopes, particularly along the eastern margin of the ridge.</p><br>
<p>The entire ridge was glaciated during the last (Wisconsin) glaciation, which scoured the ridges, left pockets of till, and dumped talus (blocks of rock) off the east side of the ridge. On top of the ridge, the soils are generally thin, highly acidic, low in nutrients, and droughty, but in depressions and other areas where water is trapped by the bedrock or till, there are interspersed lakes and wetland areas. Soils on top of shale are thicker, less acidic, and more fertile. Topography on the top of the northern Shawangunks is irregular due to a series of faults that form secondary plateaus and escarpments.</p><br>
<h2>Ice caves</h2><br>
<p>Ice caves are deep fissures in the conglomerate bedrock that retain ice through much of the summer, resulting in a cool microenvironment that supports several northern species such as black spruce, hemlock, rowan, and creeping snowberry (Gaultheria hispidula), and bryophytes such as Isopterygium distichaceum. These ice caves are concentrated near Sam&#39;s Point in the northern Shawangunks. Larger limestone caverns occur along the lower slopes of the Rondout and Delaware River valleys.</p><br>
<p>Lakes and wetlands occur mostly on the flat-topped ridges at the northern and southern ends of the area and, to a lesser extent, along the western side of the middle part of the ridge. Lakes and ponds occurring on conglomerate tend to be clear, nutrient-poor, and very acidic, due to limited buffering capacity of the bedrock. The northern Shawangunks have five lakes, the "sky lakes," which are, from north to south: Mohonk Lake, Lake Minnewaska, Lake Awosting, Mud Pond, and Lake Maratanza. The pH in four of the lakes averages about 4 (very acidic); Lake Mohonk, which partially overlays shale bedrock and is therefore partially buffered, is closer to neutral pH (7.0).</p><br>
<h2>Public lands and preserves</h2><br>
<p>The Shawangunks contain mainly public lands as well as several small residential areas. Most of the northern Ridge is protected by Minnewaska State Park Preserve, which also now manages Sam&#39;s Point Preserve with more than 100 mi of hiking trails and several climbing areas. In 2007 Shawangunk Ridge State Forest and Witches Hole State Forest were added. The Long Path long-distance hiking trail follows the ridge from Sullivan County to the vicinity of Kerhonkson; south of it the Shawangunk Ridge Trail connects to the Appalachian Trail near High Point. There are several old carriage trails on the Ridge including; Smiley Road from Ellenville into Minnewaska State Park Preserve; and Old Plank Road and Old Mountain Road in Shawangunk Ridge State Forest. Many of the foot trails are updated and maintained by the New York-New Jersey Trail Conference.</p><br>
<p>There are also many waterfalls in the Shawangunk region, such as: VerKeerderkill Falls, Awosting Falls, Buttermilk Falls and VerNooykill Falls.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, a luxury development plan for buildings has threatened the ridge line, and as a result a grassroots "Save the Ridge" campaign has become extremely popular in the area. In 2006 a court ordered the sale of property by the private owner to settle a case brought on by the developer. The Open Space Institute of NY purchased the land and has signed it over to Minnewaska State Park Preserve.</p><br>
<p>The Trust for Public Land and Open Space Institute actually agreed to purchase the land for $17 million. At closing, however, the contract was assigned and title was taken in the name of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, a federally chartered commission, although the funds for the purchase apparently came from the New York state Environmental Protection Fund.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the major public land holdings on the Shawangunk Ridge, the Mohonk Preserve is a private land trust which depending on type of use may require a day fee.</p><br>
<h3>Unit Management Plan</h3><br>
<p>In May 2007 the state Department of Environmental Conservation initiated the development of its Shawangunk Ridge Unit Management Plan to include Shawangunk Multiple Use Area, Witch&#39;s Hole State Forest, Shawangunk Ridge State Forest, Roosa Gap State Forest, Wurtsboro Ridge State Forest, Huckleberry Ridge State Forest, and three detached Forest Preserve parcels.</p><br>
<p>The goal of the project was to develop "management objectives" for the properties, including those concerning permissible forms of public recreation and access.</p><br>
<p>Following an announcement of the project&#39;s launch, no further statements had been issued by the DEC regarding its work as of June 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Hiking: The Shawangunk Ridge Trail heads north approximately 40 miles, to Sam&#39;s Point Preserve in New York from the Appalachian Trail at High Point State Park in New Jersey. It generally follows the spectacular Shawangunk Ridge north, occasionally using abandoned roads and rail beds.</p><br>
<p>The development of Rock climbing in the Shawangunks is attributed to Fritz Wiessner and Hans Kraus. It has historically been centered around four major cliffs: Millbrook, the Near Trapps, The Trapps, and Skytop. Of these four, The Trapps, is the longest, the most popular and most accessible, with the largest number of climbing routes. The Near Trapps is located immediately across Route 44/55 from The Trapps, and is second in popularity. Millbrook mountain, the highest and most southerly cliff, is the most remote, and sees the least climbing activity. The Skytop cliff is owned by the Mohonk Mountain House and rock climbing requires authorized guides. Rock climbing is also permitted on the Peter&#39;s Kill and Dickie Barre cliff areas of Minnewaska State Park Preserve. The height of the cliff varies along the ridgeline, to a maximum of some 300 ft.</p><br>
<p>Changtse  is a mountain situated between the Main Rongbuk and East Rongbuk Glaciers in Tibet, China, immediately north of Mount Everest. It is connected to Mount Everest via the North Col.</p><br>
<p>The given elevation of 7,543 metres is from modern Chinese mapping. Some authorities give 7,583 metres.</p><br>
<p>The Changtse Glacier flows north into the East Rongbuk Glacier. It is possible that the third highest lake in the world is in the Changtse Glacier at 6,216 m.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>1924 George Mallory and Andrew Irvine first to set foot on Changtse. They climbed the east ridge of Changtse to reconnoiter camp sites on the East Rongbuk Glacier.</p><br>
<p>1935 During the Mount Everest Reconnaissance a team with Eric Shipton, Edmund Wigram and Bill Tilman attempted the North Peak from their Camp IIA. On August 21 they got to within 1,500 ft of the summit before very deep and soft snow forced them to turn back.</p><br>
<p>1952 Reconnaissance of Changtse via Changtse Glacier by Edmund Hillary and George Lowe and a group of Sherpas. They reached an estimated elevation of 21,500 ft before turning back after running low on supplies.</p><br>
<p>1982 The first ascent of Changtse was unofficially made on October 3, 1982 by Johan Taks of the Dutch Everest Expedition who were officially climbing Everest from the north side. However, Taks climbed Changtse without a permit.</p><br>
<p>1982 The first official ascent of Changtse with a permit was completed 11 days later on October 14 by five members of a German expedition Udo Zehetleitner, Paul Braun, Rudolf Frick, Ludwig Hösle and Martin Engler. The ascent was made via the four kilometre-long NE Ridge from the junction of the East Rongbuk Glacier and Changtse Glacier.</p><br>
<p>1983 The next ascent and also the first solo was made by Chilean climber Gino Casassa May 14, 1983 by the same route used by the Germans.</p><br>
<p>1986 Changtse was climbed again by a large Chinese-Japanese expedition in 1986. This expedition put eight Japanese and 16 Chinese on the summit May 10 and May 11, 1986 again via the NE Ridge from the Changtse Glacier. Also included the first ascent by a woman, Mrs. Gunsung.</p><br>
<p>1986 American climber Ed Webster made the first solo ascent via the SE face from the foot of the North Col on August 28, 1986. Most of this climb was done at night, taking advantage of more stable snow and ice conditions.</p><br>
<p>1987 Australian climbers Rob Turner and Glen Nash reached the summit September 29, 1987 via the north face icewall (Japanese 1986 route) despite high winds.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The River Conwy  is a river in north Wales. From its source to its discharge in Conwy Bay it is a little over 27 mi long. "Conwy" was formerly Anglicised as "Conway."</p><br>
<p>The name Conwy derives from the old Welsh words cyn (chief) and gwy (water), the river being originally called the Cynwy.</p><br>
<p>It rises on the Migneint moor where a number of small streams flow into Llyn Conwy, then flows in a generally northern direction, being joined by the tributaries of the rivers Machno and Lledr before reaching Betws-y-Coed, where it is also joined by Afon Llugwy. From Betws-y-coed the river continues to flow north through Llanrwst, Trefriw (where it is joined by the Afon Crafnant) and Dolgarrog (where it is joined by Afon Porth-llwyd and Afon Ddu) before reaching Conwy Bay at Conwy. During spring tides the river is tidal as far as Tan-lan, near Llanrwst.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries of the River Conwy</h2><br>
<h2>Geology and geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>The Conwy is bounded to the east by the rolling ancient mudstone hills of the Silurian period, the Migneint Moors. These acid rocks are generally covered in thin, often acid soils and for large parts of the upland areas the cover is of moor-grass &mdash; Mollinia spp and Erica communities. As a result, the water entering the river tends to be acidic and often coloured brown with humic acids</p><br>
<p>To the west, the catchment is underlain by older Cambrian rocks which are harder and the landscape is, as a consequence, more dramatic with high craggy hills and mountains through which the river falls in cascades and waterfalls. Excellent examples of torrential river geomorphology can be seen at Conwy Falls and in the Lledr Gorge. The land to the East is highly forested with planted non-native conifers.</p><br>
<p>On the western side of the valley are a number of lakes and reservoirs. The rocks are also rich in minerals and there are many abandoned mine sites where copper, lead and silver have been mined since Roman times.</p><br>
<p>The river valley down-stream of Betws-y-Coed is relatively wide and fertile, and supports dairying and sheep rearing. In wintertime these pastures are used to nurture the sheep brought down from the mountains to avoid the worst of the winter weather.</p><br>
<h2>SSSI</h2><br>
<p>Aber Afon Conwy is a site of special interest. It has acquired such a status due to its marine and terrestrial biology. The tidal reach of the site reaches around 16 kilometres. Its upstream boundary is south of Tal y Cafn, and the whole site encompasses Conwy Bay. The shoreline is supported by natural rock, in addition to boulder clay cliff, sand dune, salt marsh and woodland.</p><br>
<h2>Culture and history</h2><br>
<p>The scattered communities along the Conwy valley have ancient traditions with archeological evidence of habitation back to the Stone Age. The Romans occupied this area up to 400 AD and there has been continuous habitation since that time. The valley is home to two of the oldest churches in Wales, those at Llanrhychwyn and Llangelynin, which respectively date back to the 11th and 12th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Conwy valley was laid waste in the Wars of the Roses by the Earl of Pembroke, under the orders of Edward IV, the Yorkist king, following a Lancastrian attack on the town of Denbigh in 1466.</p><br>
<p>At the mouth of the Conwy as it discharges into Conwy Bay is the town of Conwy with its World Heritage Site castle &mdash; Conwy Castle and two famous bridges. One of the earliest road suspension bridges by Thomas Telford now carries a footpath whilst Robert Stephenson&#39;s tubular iron bridge still carries the main Holyhead to London railway line. A third bridge now takes road traffic, and more recently still the A55 now runs in a tunnel under the estuary.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>The River Conwy is routinely monitored for quality by Natural_Resources_Wales. The river quality tends to be acidic in the headwaters with very low concentrations of the common anions and cations. Whilst conductivity rises as the river flows towards the sea, the overall organic quality remains very good despite some slight increases in ammonia due to diffuse agricultural inputs.</p><br>
<p>Natural Resources Wales also constantly monitors water levels in the valley, with a view to giving flood warnings. There are measuring stations at Betws-y-coed (Cwmlanerch), Llanrwst and Trefriw.</p><br>
<p>The Conwy is noted for its salmon and sea trout although increasing acidification in the second half of the 20th century, especially in the poorly buffered upland waters has significantly impacted upon their spawning success. The construction of an artificial fish pass in the 1990s to allow migratory salmonids access to the river above Conwy falls was intended to help mitigate the effects of acidification.</p><br>
<p>The Conwy Crossing, an immersed tube tunnel was built under the estuary during the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was opened by the Queen in October 1991. This resulted in the loss of some saltmarsh but also led to the creation of Conwy RSPB Reserve.</p><br>
<p>Since 2002 the valley has been overlooked by the turbines of the Moel Maelogan wind farm.</p><br>
<h2>Situation</h2><br>
<p>The panorama shows the mouth of the Conwy Estuary from Deganwy Castle, the original defensive position of the area. However, problems with resupply in the event of siege and its destruction by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales in 1263 to prevent it falling into King Edward&#39;s hands, led to a new castle being built across the water in Conwy town.</p><br>
<p>Mari , was an ancient Semitic city in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located 11 kilometers north-west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates river western bank, some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez-Zor. It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC. As a purposely built city, the existence of Mari was related to its position in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes; this position made it an intermediary between Sumer in the south and the Levant in the west.</p><br>
<p>Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East-Semitic state before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla, and is known for its strong affinity with the Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor bearing the title of Shakkanakku ("military governor"). The governors later became independent with the rapid disintegration of the Akkadian empire and rebuilt the city as a regional center in the middle Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time after the Shakkanakku collapse, Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty. The Amorite Mari was short lived as it was annexed by Babylonia in c. 1761 BC, but the city survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period.</p><br>
<p>The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a center of old trade. However, although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but rather a Semitic speaking nation that used a dialect similar to Eblaite. The Amorites were West-Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty&#39;s era (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent.</p><br>
<p>Mari&#39;s discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets that contained important information about the administration of state during the second millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations between the political entities in the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean region.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the city can be traced to Mer, an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria who was considered the patron deity of the city, Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically like the name of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The first kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Mari is not considered a small settlement that later grew, but rather a new city that was purposely founded during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I c. 2900 BC, to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes that connect the Levant with the Sumerian south. The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods, and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long depending on which old meander it used to be attached with, which is hard to identify today.</p><br>
<p>The city is difficult to excavate, as it is buried deep under the later layers of habitation. A defensive system against floods, composed of a circular embankment was unearthed, in addition to a circular 6.7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies. An area of 300 meters long filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters, separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart which had a height of 8 to 10 meters, and was strengthened by defensive towers. Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, in addition to residential houses. Mari had a central mound, however no temple or palaces have been unearthed, although a large building that seems to have been an administrative one was unearthed which had stone foundations and dimensions of (32 meters X 25 meters), with rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide. The city was abandoned at the end of the Early Dynastic period II c. 2550 BC for unknown reasons.</p><br>
<h3>The second kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Around the beginning of the Early Dynastic period III (earlier than 2500 BC), Mari was rebuilt and populated again. The new city kept many of the first city exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate. Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring 1.9 km in diameter, which was topped by a wall that is two meters thick, which is suitable for the protection of archers.</p><br>
<p>However, the internal structure was completely changed, the city was carefully planned; first to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates, ensuring the drainage of rain water.</p><br>
<p>At the heart of the city, a royal palace was built which also served as a temple. Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom&#39;s palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated P3, while the latest is P0), and the last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period. The first two levels were excavated; the findings include a temple named Enceinte Sacrée, which was the largest in the city but it is unknown for whom it was dedicated. Also unearthed were a pillared throne room and a hall that have three double wood pillars leading to the temple.</p><br>
<p>Six more temples were discovered in the city, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (to whom it was dedicated is unknown), and temples dedicated for Ninni-Zaza, Ishtarat, Ishtar, Ninhursag and Shamash. All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple and the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered the administrative center of the high priest.</p><br>
<p>The second kingdom appears to be a powerful and prosperous political center, kings held the title of Lugal, and many are attested in the city, but the most important source is the letter of king Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BC, which was sent to Irkab-Damu of Ebla, and in it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements. However, the reading of this letter is still problematic and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.</p><br>
<h4>Mari-Ebla war</h4><br>
<p>The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is Ansud, who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war, and conquering many of Eblas cities, including the land of Belan. The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu, who conquered the lands of Raak and Nirum, but king Kun-Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC. The war continued with Išhtup-Išar of Mari conquest of Emar, at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King Igrish-Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul-Il of Mari, who is mentioned in the letter conquering many of Ebla&#39;s cities and campaigning in the Burman region.</p><br>
<p>Enna-Dagan also received tribute, and his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla, who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute. Mari defeated Eblas ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibriums term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa. Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC, during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar.</p><br>
<p>According to Alfonso Archi, Hidar was succeeded by Isqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered and it depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general. Just a decade after Ebla&#39;s destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad, Michael Astour give the date as c. 2265 BC (short chronology).</p><br>
<h3>The third kingdom</h3><br>
<p>Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu. A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title Shakkanakku (military governor). Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by Naram-Sin of Akkad&#39;s appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.</p><br>
<h4>The Shakkanakku dynasty</h4><br>
<p>The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish who was appointed in c. 2266 BC, according to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years, and was succeeded by his son making the position hereditary.</p><br>
<p>The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure, phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku. Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city, and contained royal burials that date to the former periods. The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width. The former sacred inclosure was maintained, so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared, while a new temple called the "temple of lions" (dedicated to Dagan), was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace (ziggurat) that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices.</p><br>
<p>Akkad disintegrated during Shar-Kali-Sharris reign, and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period. A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur-Nammu of Ur, and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony. However, the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari, and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Urs court. The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.</p><br>
<h4>The Lim dynasty</h4><br>
<p>The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites, which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region, including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid-Lim. However, the epigraphical and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras.</p><br>
<p>Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari, he entered an alliance with Ila-kabkabu of Ekallatum, but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war. The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim&#39;s heir Yahdun-Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants. However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari.</p><br>
<p>Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim. He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean, however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu-Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul, and the rebels were supported by Yamhad&#39;s king Sumu-Epuh, whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and Eshnunna. Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided, as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, the son of the late Ila-kabkabu. The war ended in a defeat for Mari, and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu-Yamam, who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.</p><br>
<h4>=The Assyrian era and the Lim restoration=</h4><br>
<p>Shamshi-Adad appointed his son Yasmah-Adad on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim&#39;s daughter, while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad, and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family. To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of Ishi-Addu of Qatna. However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC, while the armies of Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri-Lim, the heir of the Lim dynasty.</p><br>
<p>As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the Banu-Simaal (Zimri-Lims tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad, opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adads escape, and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim-Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC. Zimri-Lims ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Maris status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad&#39;s main deity Hadad and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad.</p><br>
<p>Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Banu-Yamina, he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon, and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians. The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region, which was named Idamaraz, where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh, and Talhayum, forcing them into vassalage. The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni-Lim, the king of Andarig, whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC, and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace. Zimri-Lim&#39;s greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace, which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms, exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue, and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.</p><br>
<p>The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations, during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC. Finally, the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty, while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana.</p><br>
<h3>Later periods</h3><br>
<p>Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city. However, Mari was allowed to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration, an act that Hammurabi considered merciful. Later, Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1243–1207 BC). Afterward, Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.</p><br>
<p>In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti-Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria, causing the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala to attack the city. Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal-Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad-Nirari III (reigned 810–783 BC). In c. 760 BC, Shamash-Risha-Usur, an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur-dan III, styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari, so did his son Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur. However, by that time, Mari was known to be located in the so-called Land of Laqe, making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it, and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons. The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records.</p><br>
<h2>People, language and government</h2><br>
<p>The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north. I. J. Gelb relates Mari&#39;s foundation with the Kish civilization, which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations, that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant.</p><br>
<p>At its height, the second city was the home of about 40,000 people. This population was East-Semitic speaking one, and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla (the Eblaite language), while the Shakkanakku period had an East-Semitic Akkadian speaking population. West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari since the second kingdom era, and by the middle Bronze-Age, the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys. Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period, even among the ruling dynasty members.</p><br>
<p>During the Lim era, the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people, and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing. The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans, a term that indicate nomads in general, those Haneans were split into the Banu-Yamina (sons of the right) and Banu-Simaal (sons of the left), with the ruling house belonging to the Banu-Simaal branch. The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa.</p><br>
<p>Mari was an absolute monarchy, with the king controlling every aspect of the administration, helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators. During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital, the provincial seats were located at Terqa, Saggaratum, Qattunan and Tuttul. Each province had its own bureaucracy, the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments, in return for a share in the harvest.</p><br>
<h3>Kings of Mari</h3><br>
<p>The Sumerian King List (SKL) records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the dynasty of Adab and the dynasty of Kish. The names of the Mariote kings were damaged on the early copies of the list, and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second city. However, an undamaged copy of the list that date to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat-Enlil, and the names bears no resemblance to any of the historically attested monarchs of the second city, indicating that the compilers of the list had an older and probably a legendary dynasty in mind, that predate the second city.</p><br>
<p>The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain; nevertheless, it is assumed that the letter of Enna-Dagan lists them in a chronological order. Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city, and the dates are highly speculative.</p><br>
<p>For the Shakkanakkus, the lists are incomplete and after Hanun-Dagan who ruled at the end of the Ur era c. 2008 BC (c. 1920 BC Short chronology), they become full of lacunae. Roughly 13 more Shakkanakkus succeeded Hanun-Dagan but only few are known, with the last known one reigning not too long before the reign of Yaggid-Lim who founded the Lim dynasty in c. 1830 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Culture and religion</h2><br>
<p>The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south. The society was led by an urban oligarchy, and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress. The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months, and was the same calendar used in Ebla "the old Eblaite calendar". Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art, so was the architectural style.</p><br>
<p>Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Maris culture during the Amorite period, which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city. However, it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed, which is noticeable in the seals of kings, which reflect a clear Syrian origin. The society was a tribal one, it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads (Haneans), and in contrast to Mesopotamia, the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace. Women enjoyed a relative equality to men, queen Shibtu ruled in her husbands name while he was away, and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband&#39;s highest officials.</p><br>
<p>The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities, and throughout most of its history, Dagan was Mari&#39;s head of the Pantheon, while Mer was the patron deity. Other deities included the Semitic deities; Ishtar the goddess of fertility, Athtar, and Shamash, the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities, and believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing. Sumerian deities included Ninhursag, Dumuzi, Enki, Anu, and Enlil. Prophecy had an important role for the society, temples included prophets, who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The first Mari provided the oldest wheels workshop to be discovered in Syria, and was a center of bronze metallurgy. The city also contained districts devoted to smelting, dyeing and pottery manufacturing, charcoal was brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area.</p><br>
<p>The second kingdoms economy was based on both agriculture and trade. The economy was centralized and directed through a communal organization, where grains were stored in communal granaries, and distributed amongst the population according to social statues. The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom. Some people were directly connected to the palace instead of the communal organization, those included the metal and textile producers and the military officials. Ebla was an important trading partner and rival, Maris position made it an important trading center as it controlled the road linking between the Levant and Mesopotamia.</p><br>
<p>The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, which was still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley. The city kept its trading role and was a center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms, it received goods from the south and east through riverboats and distributed them north, north west and west. The main merchandises handled by Mari were metals and tin imported from the Iranian Plateau and then exported west as far as Crete. Other goods included copper from Cyprus, silver from Anatolia, woods from Lebanon, gold from Egypt, olive oil, wine, and textiles in addition to precious stones from modern Afghanistan.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations and archive</h2><br>
<p>Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border. A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue. After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris. The location of the fragment was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations. Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the "most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture".</p><br>
<p>Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered. Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre, the National Museum of Aleppo, the National Museum of Damascus, and the Deir ez-Zor Museum. In the latter, the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri-Lim&#39;s palace has been reconstructed, including the wall paintings.</p><br>
<p>Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960. André Parrot conducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974, and was followed by Jean-Claude Margueron (1979–2004), and Pascal Butterlin (starting in 2005). A journal devoted to the site since 1982, is Mari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires. Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, "each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site&#39;s history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed."</p><br>
<h3>Mari tablets</h3><br>
<p>The tablets were written in Akkadian, and they give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time. More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts. Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Maris independence (c. 1800 – 1750 BC), and most have now been published. The language of the texts is official Akkadian but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Maris inhabitants was Northwest Semitic.</p><br>
<h2>Current situation</h2><br>
<p>As a result of the Syrian Civil War, excavations stopped, and the site came under the control of armed gangs, and witnessed a large scale looting. An official report revealed that the robbers are focusing on the royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar and the temple of Dagan.</p><br>
<p>Larissos  is a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality West Achaea, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 225.729 km. Its seat of administration was in the village Lappas, part of the community Metochi. The municipal unit was named after the river Larissos, which flows through it. It is the westernmost municipal unit of Achaea, stretching along the Ionian Sea coast and the border with Elis to the southern part of the Movri hills. It is about 32 km southwest of Patras is 37and 50 km north of Pyrgos.</p><br>
<p>The area is mostly flat, except the Movri hills in the southeast and the lower Mavra Vouna hills in the northwest, near Cape Araxos. Araxos Airport (GPA). The archaeological site of the ancient town of Dyme is located 1 km south.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Larissos is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Agios Nikolaos Spaton (Agios Nikolaos, Agios Konstantinos)</p><br>
<p>Apideonas</p><br>
<p>Araxos (Araxos, Kalogria, Paralimni)</p><br>
<p>Kagkadi</p><br>
<p>Lakkopetra (Lakkopetra, Ioniki Akti, Karnari, Limanaki)</p><br>
<p>Mataragka (Mataragka, Kafalaiika)</p><br>
<p>Metochi (Metochi, Lappas, Neo Vouprasio, Vouprasio)</p><br>
<p>Michoi (Michoi, Kandalos, Tsamaiika, Psefteika)</p><br>
<p>Petas</p><br>
<p>Riolos (Riolos, Mazaiika)</p><br>
<p>Velitses (Ano Velitses, Kato Velitses)</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<h2>Football (soccer) clubs</h2><br>
<p>Akadimos Larissou</p><br>
<p>Atromitos Lappa, a football (soccer) club currently playing in the Fourth Division</p><br>
<p>Ikaros Lakkopetra</p><br>
<p>Metochi FC</p><br>
